Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Animal Behaviour: Evolution and Mechanisms pp 537–586Cite as

Alternative reproductive tactics and life history phenotypes

  • Chapter

Abstract

Alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs) coexisting within a population are found in many organisms. Their existence has been an enduring puzzle in evolutionary biology. Why should selection produce distinctly different alternatives to reach the same goal? How can such alternative solutions coexist in a population? What determines their evolutionary stability? Here we outline ultimate and proximate mechanisms responsible for the origin, coexistence and stability of ARTs. We argue that behavioural and reproductive polymorphisms often reflect different allocation decisions in response to trade-offs in reproduction or life-history optima that may involve heritable threshold responses to environmental variation. Alternative tactics may either be fixed for life or plastic, with simultaneous or sequential switches between tactics. General principles include disruptive selection, negative frequency dependence, density dependence, and an interaction between genetic and environmental components to generate alternative tactics. ARTs are found often where individuals invest heavily in reproduction in a way that can be circumvented and exploited by competitors, which reflects disruptive selection on reproductive investment. This often coincides with consistent size variation between individuals pursuing bourgeois and parasitic tactics.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   49.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   64.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Ahlund M, Andersson M (2001) Female ducks can double their reproduction. Nature 414:600-601

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alcock J (1999) The nesting behavior of Dawson’s burrowing bee, Amegilla dawsoni (Hymenoptera: Anthophorini), and the production of offspring of different sizes. J Insect Behav 12:363-384

    Google Scholar 

  • Alcock J, Jones CE, Buchmann SL (1977) Male mating strategies in the bee Centris pallida Fox (Anthophoridae: Hymenoptera). Am Nat 111:145-155

    Google Scholar 

  • Alonzo SH (2008) Conflict between the sexes and alternative reproductive tactics within a sex. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 435-450

    Google Scholar 

  • Alonzo SH, Sinervo B (2001) Mate choice games, context-dependent good genes, and genetic cycles in the side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 49:176-186

    Google Scholar 

  • Alonzo SH, Warner RR (2000) Female choice, conflict between the sexes and the evolution of male alternative reproductive behaviours. Evol Ecol Res 2:149-170

    Google Scholar 

  • Alonzo SH, Taborsky M, Wirtz P (2000) Male alternative reproductive behaviors in a Mediterranean wrasse, Symphodus ocellatus: evidence from otoliths for multiple life-history pathways. Evol Ecol Res 2:997-1007

    Google Scholar 

  • Andersson M (1994) Sexual Selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrés JA, Sánchez-Guillén RA, Rivera AC (2002) Evolution of female colour polymorphism in damselflies: testing the hypotheses. Anim Behav 63:677-685

    Google Scholar 

  • Arak A (1988) Callers and satellites in the natterjack toad: evolutionarily stable decision rules. Anim Behav 36:416-432

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnold AP, Breedlove SM (1985) Organizational and activational effects of sex steroids on brain and behavior: a reanalysis. Horm Behav 19:469-498

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aubin-Horth N, Dodson JJ (2004) Influence of individual body size and variable thresholds on the incidence of a sneaker male reproductive tactic in Atlantic salmon. Evolution 58:136-144

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aubin-Horth N, Letcher BH, Hofmann HA (2005a) Interaction of rearing environment and reproductive tactic on gene expression profiles in Atlantic salmon. J Hered 96:261-278

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Aubin-Horth N, Landry CR, Letcher BH, Hofmann HA (2005b) Alternative life histories shape brain gene expression profiles in males of the same population. Proc R Soc Lond B 272:1655-1662

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Awata S, Munehara H, Kohda M (2005) Social system and reproduction of helpers in a cooperatively breeding cichlid fish (Julidochromis ornatus) in Lake Tanganyika: field observations and parentage analyses. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 58:506-516

    Google Scholar 

  • Bailey NW, McNabb JR, Zuk M (2008) Preexisting behavior facilitated the loss of a sexual signal in the field cricket Teleogryllus oceanicus. Behav Ecol 19:202-207

    Google Scholar 

  • Balshine-Earn S, Neat FC, Reid H, Taborsky M (1998) Paying to stay or paying to breed? Field evidence for direct benefits of helping behavior in a cooperatively breeding fish. Behav Ecol 9:432-438

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass AH, Forlano PM (2008) Neuroendocrine mechanisms of alternative reproductive tactics: the chemical language of reproductive and social plasticity. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 109-131

    Google Scholar 

  • Bass AH, Grober MS (2001) Social and neural modulation of sexual plasticity in teleost fish. Brain Behav Evol 57:293-300

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bass AH, Grober MS (2009) Reproductive plasticity in fish: evolutionary lability in the patterning of neuroendocrine and behavioral traits underlying divergent sexual phenotypes. In: Pfaff DW, Arnold AP, Etgen AM, Fahrbach SE, Rubin RT (eds) Hormones, Brain and Behavior. Vol 1. Academic Press, San Diego, pp 579-609

    Google Scholar 

  • Baum D, Laughton R, Armstrong JD, Metcalfe NB (2004) Altitudinal variation in the relationship between growth and maturation rate in salmon parr. J Anim Ecol 73:253-260

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergmüller R, Taborsky M (2005) Experimental manipulation of helping in a cooperative breeder: helpers ‘pay to stay’ by pre-emptive appeasement. Anim Behav 69:19-28

    Google Scholar 

  • Bergmüller R, Heg D, Taborsky M (2005) Helpers in a cooperatively breeding cichlid stay and pay or disperse and breed, depending on ecological constraints. Proc R Soc Lond B 272:325-331

    Google Scholar 

  • Birkhead TR, Møller AP (1992) Sperm Competition in Birds: Evolutionary Causes and Consequences. Academic Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Bleay C, Comendant T, Sinervo B (2007) An experimental test of frequencydependent selection on male mating strategy in the field. Proc R Soc Lond B 274:2019-2025

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Blumer LS (1979) Male parental care in the bony fishes Q Rev Biol 54:149-161

    Google Scholar 

  • Blumer LS (1982) A bibliography and categorization of bony fishes exhibiting parental care. Zool J Linn Soc 76:1-22

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ (1993) Parasitizing conspecifics: comparisons between Hymenoptera and birds. Trends Ecol Evol 8:2-4

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ (2001) The evolution of alternative strategies and tactics. Adv Stud Behav 30:1-51

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ (2003) Male competition and satellite behavior. In: Shuster CN, Barlow RB, Brockmann HJ (eds) The American Horseshoe Crab. Harvard University Press, Cambridge/MA, pp 50-82

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ (2008) Alternative reproductive tactis in insects. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 177-223

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ, Dawkins R (1979) Joint nesting in a digger wasp as an evolutionarity stable preadoption to social life. Behavior 71:203-244

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ, Penn D (1992) Male mating tactics in the horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus. Anim Behav 44:653-665

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ, Taborsky M (2008) Alternative reproductive tactics and the evolution of alternative allocation phenotypes. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 25-51

    Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ, Grafen A, Dawkins R (1979) Evolutionarily stable nesting strategy in a digger wasp. J Theor Biol 77:473-496

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brockmann HJ, Oliveira RF, Taborsky M (2008) Integrating mechanisms and function: prospects for future research. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 471-489

    Google Scholar 

  • Brouwer L, Heg D, Taborsky M (2005) Experimental evidence for helper effects in a cooperatively breeding cichlid. Behav Ecol 16:667-673

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruintjes R, Taborsky M (2008) Helpers in a cooperative breeder pay a high price to stay: effects of demand, helper size and sex. Anim Behav 75:1843-1850

    Google Scholar 

  • Cade WH, Cade ES (1992) Male mating success, calling and searching behavior at high and low densities in the field cricket, Gryllus integer. Anim Behav 43:49-56

    Google Scholar 

  • Caro TM, Bateson P (1986) Organization and ontogeny of alternative tactics. Anim Behav 34:1483-1499

    Google Scholar 

  • Charnov EL (1982) The Theory of Sex Allocation. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock TH (1991) The Evolution of Parental Care. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Clutton-Brock TH, Albon SD, Guinness FE (1986) Great expectations: dominance, breeding success and offspring sex ratios in red deer. Anim Behav 34:460-471

    Google Scholar 

  • Connor RC, Read AJ, Wrangham R (2000) Male reproductive strategies and social bonds. In: Mann J, Connor RC, Tyack PL, Whitehead H (eds) Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 247-269

    Google Scholar 

  • Constantz GD (1975). Behavioural ecology of mating in the male Gila topminnow, Poeciliopsis occidentalis. Ecology 56:966-973

    Google Scholar 

  • Correa C, Baeza JA, Hinojosa IA, Thiel M (2003) Male dominance hierarchy and mating tactics in the rock shrimp Rhynchocinetes typus (Decapoda: Caridea). J Crustacean Biol 23:33-45

    Google Scholar 

  • Crnokrak P, Roff DA (1998) The genetic basis of the trade-off between calling and wing morph in males of the cricket Gryllus firmus. Evolution 52:1111-1118

    Google Scholar 

  • Danforth BN, Desjardins CA (1999) Male dimorphism in Perdita portalis (Hymenoptera, Andrenidae) has arisen from preexisting allometric patterns. Insectes Soc 46:18-28

    Google Scholar 

  • Danforth BN, Neff JL (1992) Male polymorphism and polyethism in Perdita texana (Hymenoptera, Andrenidae). Ann Entomol Soc Am 85:616-626

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawkins R (1980) Good strategy or evolutionarily stable strategy? In: Barlow GW, Silverberg J (eds) Sociobiology: Beyond Nature/Nurture? Reports, definitions, and debate. Westview Press, Boulder, pp 331-367

    Google Scholar 

  • Dempster ER, Lerner IM (1950) Heritability of threshold characters. Genetics 35:212-236

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Denno RF (1994) The evolution of dispersal polymorphisms in insects – the influence of habitats, host plants and mates. Res Popul Ecol 36:127-135

    Google Scholar 

  • Denno RF, Douglass LW, Jacobs D (1985) Crowding and host plant nutrition: environmental determinants of wing form in Prokelisia marginata. Ecology 66:1588-1596

    Google Scholar 

  • Denno RF, Roderick GK, Peterson MA, Huberty AF, Döbel HG, Eubanks MD, Losey JE, Langellotto GA (1996) Habitat persistence underlies intraspecific variation in the dispersal strategies of planthoppers. Ecol Monogr 66:389-408

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson JL (2004) A test of the importance of direct and indirect fitness benefits for helping decisions in western bluebirds. Behav Ecol 15:233-238

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierkes P, Taborsky M, Kohler U (1999) Reproductive parasitism of broodcare helpers in a cooperatively breeding fish. Behav Ecol 10:510-515

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierkes P, Heg D, Taborsky M, Skubic E, Achmann R (2005) Genetic relatedness in groups is sex-specific and declines with age of helpers in a cooperatively breeding cichlid. Ecol Lett 8:968-975

    Google Scholar 

  • Dierkes P, Taborsky M, Achmann R (2008) Multiple paternity in the cooperatively breeding fish Neolamprologus pulcher. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 62:1581-1589

    Google Scholar 

  • Dingle H, Winchell R (1997) Juvenile hormone as a mediator of plasticity in insect life histories. Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 35:359-373

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dominey WJ (1980) Female mimicry in male bluegill sunfish – a genetic polymorphism? Nature 284:546-548

    Google Scholar 

  • Dominey WJ (1984) Alternative mating tactics and evolutionarily stable strategies. Am Zool 24:385-396

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunbar RIM (1982) Intraspecific variations in mating strategy. In: Bateson PPG, Klopfer PH (eds) Perspectives in Ethology. Plenum Press, New York, pp 385-431

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunning JB Jr (1992) CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses. CRC Press, Boca Raton

    Google Scholar 

  • Eadie JM, Fryxell JM (1992) Density dependence, frequency dependence, and alternative nesting strategies in goldeneyes. Am Nat 140:621-641

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emlen DJ (1994) Environmental control of horn length dimorphism in the beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera, Scarabaeidae). Proc R Soc Lond B 256:131-136

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen DJ (1996) Artificial selection on horn length body size allometry in the horned beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Evolution 50:1219-1230

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen DJ (1997) Alternative reproductive tactics and male-dimorphism in the horned beetle Onthophagus acuminatus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 41:335-341

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen DJ (2008) The roles of genes and the environment in the expression and evolution of alternative tactics. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 85-108

    Google Scholar 

  • Emlen DJ, Nijhout HF (1999) Hormonal control of male horn length dimorphism in the dung beetle Onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). J Insect Physiol 45:45-53

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emlen DJ, Nijhout HF (2000) The development and evolution of exaggerated morphologies in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 45:661-708

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emlen DJ, Nijhout HF (2001) Hormonal control of male horn length dimorphism in Onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae): a second critical period of sensitivity to juvenile hormone. J Insect Physiol 47:1045-1054

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Emlen ST, Oring LW (1977) Ecology, sexual selection, and the evolution of mating systems. Science 197:215-223

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Erbelding-Denk C, Schröder JH, Schartl M, Nanda I, Schmid M, Epplen JT (1994) Male polymorphism in Limia perugiae (Pisces: Poeciliidae). Behav Gen 24:95-101

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Falconer DS (1952) The problem of environment and selection. Am Nat 86:293-298

    Google Scholar 

  • Falconer DS, Mackay TFC (1996) Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. Longman, Harlow

    Google Scholar 

  • Farr JA (1980) Social behavior patterns as determinants of reproductive success in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata Peters (Pisces, Poeciliidae) – an experimental study of the effects of intermale competition, female choice, and sexual selection. Behaviour 74:38-91

    Google Scholar 

  • Feh C (1999) Alliances and reproductive success in Camargue stallions. Anim Behav 57:705-713

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Field J (1994) Selection of host nests by intraspecific nest-parasitic digger wasps. Anim Behav 48:113-118

    Google Scholar 

  • Fitzpatrick JL, Desjardins JK, Stiver KA, Montgomerie R, Balshine S (2006) Male reproductive suppression in the cooperatively breeding fish Neolamprologus pulcher. Behav Ecol 17:25-33

    Google Scholar 

  • Forchhammer MC, Boomsma JJ (1998) Optimal mating strategies in nonterritorial ungulates: a general model tested on muskoxen. Behav Ecol 9:136-143

    Google Scholar 

  • Forester DC, Lykens DV (1986) Significance of satellite males in a population of spring peepers (Hyla crucifer). Copeia 1986:719-724

    Google Scholar 

  • Frankino WA, Pfennig DW (2001) Condition-dependent expression of trophic polyphenism: effects of individual size and competitive ability. Evol Ecol Res 3:939-951

    Google Scholar 

  • Gadgil M (1972) Male dimorphism as a consequence of sexual selection. Am Nat 106:574-580

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia-Vazquez E, Moran P, Perez J, Martinez JL, Izquierdo JI, de Gaudemar B, Beall E (2002) Interspecific barriers between salmonids when hybridisation is due to sneak mating. Heredity 89:288-292

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gonçalves D, Teles M, Alpedrinha J, Oliveira RF (2008) Brain and gonadal aromatase activity and steroid hormone levels in female and polymorphic males of the peacock blenny Salaria pavo. Horm Behav 54:717-725

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gosling LM, Petrie M (1990) Lekking in topi: a consequence of satellite behaviour by small males at hotspots. Anim Behav 40:272-287

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross MR (1982) Sneakers, satellites and parentals – polymorphic mating strategies in North-American sunfishes. Z Tierpsychol 60:1-26

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross MR (1984) Sunfish, salmon, and the evolution of alternative reproductive strategies and tactics in fishes. In: Potts GW, Wootton RJ (eds) Fish Reproduction: Strategies and Tactics. Academic Press, London, pp 55-75

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross MR (1985) Disruptive selection for alternative life histories in salmon. Nature 313:47-48

    Google Scholar 

  • Gross MR (1996) Alternative reproductive strategies and tactics: diversity within sexes. Trends Ecol Evol 11:92-98

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Halama KJ, Reznick DN (2001) Adaptation, optimality, and the meaning of phenotypic variation in natural populations. In: Orzack SH, Sober E (eds) Adaptationism and Optimality. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 242-272

    Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton IM, Heg D (2008) Sex differences in the effect of social status on the growth of subordinates in a co-operatively breeding cichlid. J Fish Biol 72:1079-1088

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansell M (2005) Animal Architecture. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Harcourt AH, de Waal FBM (1992) Coalitions and Alliances in Humans and Other Animals. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartfelder K, Emlen DJ (2005) Endocrine control of insect polyphenism. In: Gilbert LI, Iatrou K, Gill SS (eds) Comprehensive Molecular Insect Science. Vol 3: Endocrinology. Elsevier, Boston, pp 651-703

    Google Scholar 

  • Hazel WN, Smock R, Johnson MD (1990) A polygenic model for the evolution and maintenance of conditional strategies. Proc R Soc Lond B 242:181-187

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hazel W, Smock R, Lively CM (2004) The ecological genetics of conditional strategies. Am Nat 163:888-900

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath DD, Devlin RH, Heath JW, Iwama GK (1994) Genetic, environmental and interaction effects on the incidence of jacking in Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Chinook salmon). Heredity 72:146-154

    Google Scholar 

  • Heg D, Hamilton IM (2008) Tug-of-war over reproduction in a cooperatively breeding cichlid. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 62:1249-1257

    Google Scholar 

  • Heg D, Bachar Z, Brouwer L, Taborsky M (2004a) Predation risk is an ecological constraint for helper dispersal in a cooperatively breeding cichlid. Proc R Soc Lond B 271:2367-2374

    Google Scholar 

  • Heg D, Bender N, Hamilton IM (2004b) Strategic growth decisions in helper cichlids. Proc R Soc Lond B 271:S505-S508

    Google Scholar 

  • Heg D, Bergmüller R, Bonfils D, Otti O, Bachar Z, Burri R, Heckel G, Taborsky M (2006) Cichlids do not adjust reproductive skew to the availability of independent breeding options. Behav Ecol 17:419-429

    Google Scholar 

  • Heg D, Jutzeler E, Bonfils D, Mitchell JS (2008) Group composition affects male reproductive partitioning in a cooperatively breeding cichlid. Mol Ecol 17:4359-4370

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heg D, Jutzeler E, Mitchell JS, Hamilton IM (2009) Helpful female subordinate cichlids are more likely to reproduce. PLoS ONE 4:e5458, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005458

    Google Scholar 

  • Henson SA, Warner RR (1997) Male and female alternative reproductive behaviors in fishes: a new approach using intersexual dynamics. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 28:571-592

    Google Scholar 

  • Hews DK, Knapp R, Moore MC (1994) Early exposure to androgens affects adult expression of alternative male types in tree lizards. Horm Behav 28:96-115

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hogan-Warburg AJ (1966) Social behavior of the ruff, Philomachus pugnax (L.). Ardea 54:109-229

    Google Scholar 

  • Hori M (1993) Frequency-dependent natural selection in the handedness of scaleeating cichlid fish. Science 260:216-219

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howard RD (1984) Alternative mating behaviors of young male bullfrogs. Am Zool 24:397-406

    Google Scholar 

  • Hugie DM, Lank DB (1997) The resident’s dilemma: a female choice model for the evolution of alternative mating strategies in lekking male ruffs (Philomachus pugnax). Behav Ecol 8:218-225

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchings JA, Jones MEB (1998) Life history variation and growth rate thresholds for maturity in Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 55:22-47

    Google Scholar 

  • Jennions MD, Petrie M (2000) Why do females mate multiply? A review of the genetic benefits. Biol Rev 75:21-64

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnstone RA (2000) Models of reproductive skew: a review and synthesis. Ethology 106:5-26

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones MW, Hutchings JA (2002) Individual variation in Atlantic salmon fertilization success: implications for effective population size. Ecol Appl 12:184-193

    Google Scholar 

  • Jukema J, Piersma T (2006) Permanent female mimics in a lekking shorebird. Biol Lett 2:161-164

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kallman KD (1984) A new look at sex determination in poeciliid fishes. In: Turner BJ (ed) Evolutionary Genetics of Fishes. Plenum Press, New York, pp 95-171

    Google Scholar 

  • Kallman KD (1989) Genetic control of size at maturity in Xiphophorus. In: Meffe GK, Snelson FF Jr (eds) Ecology and Evolution of Livebearing Fishes (Poeciliidae). Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs/NJ, pp 163-184

    Google Scholar 

  • Keller L, Reeve HK (1994) Partitioning of reproduction in animal societies. Trends Ecol Evol 9:98-102

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kellog KA, Markert JA, Stauffer JR, Kocher TD (1998) Intraspecific brood mixing and reduced polyandry in a maternal mouth-brooding cichlid. Behav Ecol 9:309-312

    Google Scholar 

  • Kraak SBM, Pen I (2002) Sex-determining mechanisms in vertebrates. In: Hardy ICW (ed) Sex Ratios: Concepts and Research Methods. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 158-177

    Google Scholar 

  • Krüger O (2008) Alternative reproductive tactics in birds. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 343-355

    Google Scholar 

  • Lande R, Arnold SJ (1983) The measurement of selection on correlated characters. Evolution 37:1210-1226

    Google Scholar 

  • Langbein J, Thirgood SJ (1989) Variation in mating systems of fallow deer (Dama dama) in relation to ecology. Ethology 83:195-214

    Google Scholar 

  • Langellotto GA, Denno RF (2001) Benefits of dispersal in patchy environments: mate location by males of a wing-dimorphic insect. Ecology 82:1870-1878

    Google Scholar 

  • Lank DB, Smith CM, Hanotte O, Burke T, Cooke F (1995) Genetic polymorphism for alternative mating behaviour in lekking male ruff Philomachus pugnax. Nature 378:59-62

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Le Boeuf BJ (1974) Male-male competition and reproductive success in elephant seals. Am Zool 14:163-176

    Google Scholar 

  • Lee JSF (2005) Alternative reproductive tactics and status-dependent selection. Behav Ecol 16:566-570

    Google Scholar 

  • Levins R (1968) Evolution in Changing Environments: Some Theoretical Explorations. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Lively CM (1986) Canalization versus developmental conversion in a spatially variable environment. Am Nat 128:561-572

    Google Scholar 

  • Lloyd DG (1987) Parallels between sexual strategies and other allocation strategies. In: Stearns SC (ed) The Evolution of Sex and Its Consequences. Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, pp 263-281

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas JR, Howard RD (1995) On alternative reproductive tactics in anurans: dynamic games with density and frequency dependence. Am Nat 146:365-397

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas JR, Howard RD (2008) Modeling alternative mating tactics as dynamic games. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 63-82

    Google Scholar 

  • Lucas JR, Howard RD, Palmer JG (1996) Callers and satellites: chorus behaviour in anurans as a stochastic dynamic game. Anim Behav 51:501-518

    Google Scholar 

  • Magnhagen C (1992) Alternative reproductive behaviour in the common goby Pomatoschistus microps: an ontogenetic gradient? Anim Behav 44:182-184

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin E, Taborsky M (1997) Alternative male mating tactics in a cichlid, Pelvicachromis pulcher: a comparison of reproductive effort and success. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 41:311-319

    Google Scholar 

  • Maynard Smith J (1982) Evolution and the Theory of Games. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Mboko SK, Kohda M (1999) Piracy mating by large males in a monogamous substrate-breeding cichlid in Lake Tanganyika. J Ethol 17:51-55

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell JS, Jutzeler E, Heg D, Taborsky M (2009a) Gender differences in the costs that subordinate group members impose on dominant males in a cooperative breeder. Ethology 115:1162-1174

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell JS, Jutzeler E, Heg D, Taborsky M (2009b) Dominant members of cooperatively-breeding groups adjust their behaviour in response to the sexes of subordinates. Behaviour 146:1665-1686

    Google Scholar 

  • Moczek AP, Emlen DJ (2000) Male horn dimorphism in the scarab beetle, Onthophagus taurus: do alternative reproductive tactics favour alternative phenotypes? Anim Behav 59:459-466

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moczek AP, Nijhout HF (2002) Developmental mechanisms of threshold evolution in a polyphenic beetle. Evol Dev 4:252-264

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore MC (1991) Application of organization-activation theory to alternative male reproductive strategies: a review. Horm Behav 25:154-179

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moore MC, Hews DK, Knapp R (1998) Hormonal control and evolution of alternative male phenotypes: generalizations of models for sexual differentiation. Am Zool 38:133-151

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moran NA (1992) The evolutionary maintenance of alternative phenotypes. Am Nat 139:971-989

    Google Scholar 

  • Morris MR, Nicoletto PF, Hesselman E (2003) A polymorphism in female preference for a polymorphic male trait in the swordtail fish Xiphophorus cortezi. Anim Behav 65:45-52

    Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz RC, Warner RR (2004) Testing a new version of the size-advantage hypothesis for sex change: sperm competition and size-skew effects in the bucktooth parrotfish, Sparisoma radians. Behav Ecol 15:129-136

    Google Scholar 

  • Neff BD (2004) Increased performance of offspring sired by parasitic males in bluegill sunfish. Behav Ecol 15:327-331

    Google Scholar 

  • Neff BD (2008) Alternative mating tactics and mate choice for good genes or good care. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 421-434

    Google Scholar 

  • Neff BD, Gross MR (2001) Dynamic adjustment of parental care in response to perceived paternity. Proc R Soc Lond B 268:1559-1565

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nijhout HF (1999) Hormonal control in larval development and evolution: insects. In: Hall BK, Wake MH (eds) The Origin and Evolution of Larval Forms. Academic Press, New York, pp 217-254

    Google Scholar 

  • Nijhout HF (2003) Development and evolution of adaptive polyphenisms. Evol Dev 5:9-18

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nijhout HF, Wheeler DE (1982) Juvenile hormone and the physiological basis of insect polymorphisms. Q Rev Biol 57:109-133

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira RF (2004) Social modulation of androgens in vertebrates: mechanisms and function. Adv Stud Behav 34:165-239

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira RF, Gonçalves EJ, Santos RS (2001) Gonadal investment of young males in two blenniid fishes with alternative mating tactics. J Fish Biol 59:459-462

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira RF, Carvalho N, Miranda J, Gonçalves EJ, Grober M, Santos RS (2002) The relationship between the presence of satellite males and nest-holders’ mating success in the Azorean rock-pool blenny Parablennius sanguinolentus parvicornis. Ethology 108:223-235

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (2008a) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

    Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira RF, Canário AVM, Ros AFH (2008b) Hormones and alternative reproductive tactics in vertebrates. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 132-174

    Google Scholar 

  • Packer C (1977) Reciprocal altruism in Papio anubis. Nature 265:441-443

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker GA (1984) Evolutionarily stable strategies. In: Krebs JR, Davies NB (eds) Behavioural Ecology: An Evolutionary Approach. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 30-61

    Google Scholar 

  • Pemberton JM, Coltman DW, Smith JA, Bancroft DR (2004) Mating patterns and male breeding success. In: Clutton-Brock TH, Pemberton J (eds) Soay Sheep: Dynamics and Selection in an Island Population. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 166-189

    Google Scholar 

  • Perrill SA, Gerhardt HC, Daniel RE (1982) Mating strategy shifts in male green treefrogs (Hyla cinerea): an experimental study. Anim Behav 30:43-48

    Google Scholar 

  • Petrie M, Møller AP (1991) Laying eggs in other’s nests: intraspecific brood parasitism in birds. Trends Ecol Evol 6:315-320

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Piché J, Hutchings JA, Blanchard W (2008) Genetic variation in threshold reaction norms for alternative reproductive tactics in male Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar. Proc R Soc Lond B 275:1571-1575

    Google Scholar 

  • Pienaar J, Greeff JM (2003) Different male morphs of Otitesella pseudoserrata fig wasps have equal fitness but are not determined by different alleles. Ecol Lett 6:286-289

    Google Scholar 

  • Pizzo A, Roggero A, Palestrini C, Moczek AP, Rolandoa A (2008) Rapid shape divergences between natural and introduced populations of a horned beetle partly mirror divergences between species. Evol Dev 10:166-175

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plaistow SJ, Tsubaki Y (2000) A selective trade-off for territoriality and nonterritoriality in the polymorphic damselfly Mnais costalis. Proc R Soc Lond B 267:969-975

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Plaistow SJ, Johnstone RA, Colegrave N, Spencer M (2004) Evolution of alternative mating tactics: conditional versus mixed strategies. Behav Ecol 15:534-542

    Google Scholar 

  • Radwan J (1993) The adaptive significance of male polymorphism in the acarid mite Caloglyphus berlesei. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 33:201-208

    Google Scholar 

  • Radwan J (1995) Male morph determination in two species of acarid mites. Heredity 74:669-673

    Google Scholar 

  • Radwan J, Unrug J, Tomkins JL (2002) Status-dependence and morphological trade-offs in the expression of a sexually selected character in the mite, Sancassania berlesei. J Evol Biol 15:744-752

    Google Scholar 

  • Reichard M, Le Comber SC, Smith C (2007) Sneaking from a female perspective. Anim Behav 74:679-688

    Google Scholar 

  • Renn SCP, Aubin-Horth N, Hofmann HA (2008) Fish and chips: functional genomics of social plasticity in an African cichlid fish. J Exp Biol 211:3041-3056

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Repka J, Gross MR (1995) The evolutionarily stable strategy under individual condition and tactic frequency. J Theor Biol 176:27-31

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rhen T, Crews D (2002) Variation in reproductive behaviour within a sex: neural systems and endocrine activation. J Neuroendocrinol 14:517-531

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ribbink AJ (1977) Cuckoo among Lake Malawi chichlid fish. Nature 267:243-244

    Google Scholar 

  • Rios-Cardenas O, Tudor MS, Morris MR (2007) Female preference variation has implications for the maintenance of an alternative mating strategy in a swordtail fish. Anim Behav 74:633-640

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson DR, Reinboth R, Bruce RW (1982) Gonochorism, protogyneous sexchange and spawning in three sparisomatinine parrotfishes from the western Indian Ocean. Bull Mar Sci 32:868-879

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodgers EW, Earley RL, Grober MS (2007) Social status determines sexual phenotype in the bi-directional sex changing bluebanded goby Lythrypnus dalli. J Fish Biol 70:1660-1668

    Google Scholar 

  • Roff DA (1990) Antagonistic pleiotropy and the evolution of wing dimorphism in the sand cricket, Gryllus firmus. Heredity 65:169-177

    Google Scholar 

  • Roff DA (1996) The evolution of threshold traits in animals. Q Rev Biol 71:3-35

    Google Scholar 

  • Roff DA (1998) Evolution of threshold traits: the balance between directional selection, drift and mutation. Heredity 80:25-32

    Google Scholar 

  • Ross RM (1990) The evolution of sex-change mechanisms in fishes. Environ Biol Fishes 29:81-93

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland WJ (1979) Stealing fertilizations in the fourspine stickleback, Apeltes quadracus. Am Nat 114:602-604

    Google Scholar 

  • Rowland JM, Emlen DJ (2009) Two thresholds, three male forms result in facultative male trimorphism in beetles. Science 323:773-776

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan MJ, Causey BA (1989) Alternative mating behavior in the swordtails Xiphophorus nigrensis and Xiphophorus pygmaeus (Pisces, Poeciliidae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 24:341-348

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryan MJ, Wagner WE (1987) Asymmetries in mating preferences between species: female swordtails prefer heterospecific males. Science 236:595-597

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan MJ, Pease CM, Morris MR (1992) A genetic polymorphism in the swordtail, Xiphophorus nigrensis: testing the prediction of equal fitnesses. Am Nat 139:21-31

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandell MI, Diemer M (1999) Intraspecific brood parasitism: a strategy for floating females in the European starling. Anim Behav 57:197-202

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schaedelin FC, Taborsky M (2009) Extended phenotypes as signals. Biol Rev 84:293-313

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheiner SM (1993) Genetics and evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 24:35-68

    Google Scholar 

  • Schlichting CD, Pigliucci M (1998) Phenotypic Evolution: A Reaction Norm Perspective. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland/MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Schütz D, Pachler G, Ripmeester E, Goffinet O, Taborsky M (2010) Reproductive investment of giants and dwarfs: specialized tactics in a cichlid fish with alternative male morphs. Funct Ecol 24:131-140

    Google Scholar 

  • Seger J, Brockmann HJ (1987) What is bet-hedging? In: Harvey PH, Partridge L (eds) Oxford Surveys of Evolutionary Biology. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 182-211

    Google Scholar 

  • Setchell JM (2008) Alternative reproductive tactics in primates. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 373-398

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro AM (1976) Seasonal polyphenism. Evol Biol 9:259-333

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro DY (1987) Differentiation and evolution of sex change in fishes. Bioscience 37:490-497

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuster SM (1992) The reproductive behavior of α-, β-, and γ -male morphs in Paracerceis sculpta, a marine isopod crustacean. Behaviour 121:231-257

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuster SM (2008) The expression of crustacean mating strategies. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 224-250

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuster SM, Sassaman C (1997) Genetic interaction between male mating strategy and sex ratio in a marine isopod. Nature 388:373-377

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shuster SM, Wade MJ (1991) Equal mating success among male reproductive strategies in a marine isopod. Nature 350:608-610

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuster SM, Wade MJ (2003) Mating Systems and Strategies. Princeton University Press, Princeton

    Google Scholar 

  • Shuster SM, Zinser G, Keim P, Ballard JWO, Sassaman C (2001) The influence of genetic and extrachromosomal factors on population sex ratio in the marine isopod, Paracerceis sculpta. In: Kensley BF, Brusca RC (eds) Crustacean Issues 13: Isopod Systematics and Evolution. Balkema, Brookfield, pp 313-326

    Google Scholar 

  • Simmons LW, Teale RJ, Maier M, Standish RJ, Bailey WJ, Withers PC (1992) Some costs of reproduction for male bush-crickets, Requena verticalis (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae) – allocating resources to mate attraction and nuptial feeding. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 31:57-62

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinervo B, Lively CM (1996) The rock-paper-scissors game and the evolution of alternative male strategies. Nature 380:240-243

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinervo B, Svensson E, Comendant T (2000) Density cycles and an offspring quantity and quality game driven by natural selection. Nature 406:985-988

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinervo B, Bleay C, Adamopoulou C (2001) Social causes of correlational selection and the resolution of a heritable throat color polymorphism in a lizard. Evolution 55:2040-2052

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sinervo B, Chaine A, Clobert J, Calsbeek R, Hazard L, Lancaster L, McAdam AG, Alonzo S, Corrigan G, Hochberg ME (2006) Self-recognition, color signals, and cycles of greenbeard mutualism and altruism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:7372-7377

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sirot LK, Brockmann HJ, Marinis C, Muschett G (2003) Maintenance of a female-limited polymorphism in Ischnura ramburi (Zygoptera: Coenagrionidae). Anim Behav 66:763-775

    Google Scholar 

  • Skubic E, Taborsky M, McNamara JM, Houston AI (2004) When to parasitize? A dynamic optimization model of reproductive strategies in a cooperative breeder. J Theor Biol 227:487-501

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Skúlason S, Smith TB (1995) Resource polymorphisms in vertebrates. Trends Ecol Evol 10:366-370

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith TB, Skúlason S (1996) Evolutionary significance of resource polymorphisms in fish, amphibians and birds. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 27:111-134

    Google Scholar 

  • Smuts BB, Smuts RW (1993) Male aggression and sexual coercion of females in nonhuman primates and other mammals: evidence and theoretical implications. Adv Stud Behav 22:1-63

    Google Scholar 

  • Sohn JJ (1977) Socially induced inhibition of genetically determined maturation in platyfish, Xiphophorus maculatus. Science 195:199-201

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • St-Cyr S, Aubin-Horth N (2009) Integrative and genomics approaches to uncover the mechanistic bases of fish behavior and its diversity. Comp Biochem Physiol A 152:9-21

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiver KA, Dierkes P, Taborsky M, Balshine S (2004) Dispersal patterns and status change in a co-operatively breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher: evidence from microsatellite analyses and behavioural observations. J Fish Biol 65:91-105

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiver KA, Dierkes P, Taborsky M, Gibbs HL, Balshine S (2005) Relatedness and helping in fish: examining the theoretical predictions. Proc R Soc Lond B 272:1593-1599

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiver KA, Fitzpatrick J, Desjardins JK, Balshine S (2006) Sex differences in rates of territory joining and inheritance in a cooperatively breeding cichlid fish. Anim Behav 71:449-456

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (1984) Broodcare helpers in the cichlid fish Lamprologus brichardi – their costs and benefits. Anim Behav 32:1236-1252

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (1985) Breeder-helper conflict in a cichlid fish with broodcare helpers – an experimental analysis. Behaviour 95:45-75

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (1994) Sneakers, satellites, and helpers: parasitic and cooperative behavior in fish reproduction. Adv Stud Behav 23:1-100

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (1997) Bourgeois and parasitic tactics: do we need collective, functional terms for alternative reproductive behaviours? Behav Ecol Sociobiol 41:361-362

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (1998) Sperm competition in fish: bourgeois males and parasitic spawning. Trends Ecol Evol 13:222-227

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (1999) Conflict or cooperation: what determines optimal solutions to competition in fish reproduction? In: Almada VC, Oliveira RF, Gonçalves EJ (eds) Behaviour and Conservation of Littoral Fishes. Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada, Lisboa, pp 301-349

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (2001) The evolution of parasitic and cooperative reproductive behaviors in fishes. J Heredity 92:100-110

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (2008) Alternative reproductive tactics in fish. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 251-299

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M (2009) Reproductive skew in cooperative fish groups: virtue and limitations of alternative modeling approaches. In: Hager R, Jones CB (eds) Reproductive Skew in Vertebrates: Proximate and Ultimate Causes. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 265-304

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M, Limberger D (1981) Helpers in fish. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 8:143-145

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M, Hudde B, Wirtz P (1987) Reproductive behaviour and ecology of Symphodus (Crenilabrus) ocellatus, a European wrasse with four types of male behaviour. Behaviour 102:82-118

    Google Scholar 

  • Taborsky M, Oliveira RF, Brockmann HJ (2008) The evolution of alternative reproductive tactics: concepts and questions. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 1-21

    Google Scholar 

  • Takahashi S, Hori M (1994) Unstable evolutionarily stable strategy and oscillation: a model of lateral asymmetry in scale-eating cichlids. Am Nat 144:1001-1020

    Google Scholar 

  • Tallamy DW (2005) Egg dumping in insects. Annu Rev Entomol 50:347-370

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tallamy DW, Horton LA (1990) Costs and benefits of the eggdumping alternative in Gargaphia lace bugs (Hemiptera: Tingidae). Anim Behav 39:352-359

    Google Scholar 

  • Thériault V, Dodson JJ (2003) Body size and the adoption of a migratory tactic in brook charr. J Fish Biol 63:1144-1159

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomaz D, Beall E, Burke T (1997) Alternative reproductive tactics in Atlantic salmon: factors affecting mature parr success. Proc R Soc Lond B 264:219-226

    Google Scholar 

  • Thornhill R, Alcock J (1983) The Evolution of Insect Mating Systems. Harvard University Press, Cambridge/MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe JE (1986) Age at first maturity in Atlantic Salmon, Salmo salar: freshwater period influences and conflicts with smelting. In: Meerburg DJ (ed) Salmonid Age at Maturity. Can Spec Publ Fish Aquat Sci 89:7-14

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe JE, Morgan RIG (1980) Growth rate and smolting rate of progeny of male Atlantic salmon parr (Salmo salar L.). J Fish Biol 17:451-459

    Google Scholar 

  • Thorpe JE, Mangel M, Metcalfe NB, Huntingford FA (1998) Modelling the proximate basis of salmonid life-history variation, with application to Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Evol Ecol 12:581-599

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins JL, Brown GS (2004) Population density drives the local evolution of a threshold dimorphism. Nature 431:1099-1103

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins JL, Hazel W (2007) The status of the conditional evolutionarily stable strategy. Trends Ecol Evol 22:522-528

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins JL, Moczek AP (2009) Patterns of threshold evolution in polyphenic insects under different developmental models. Evolution 63:459-468

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins JL, Simmons LW, Alcock J (2001) Brood-provisioning strategies in Dawson’s burrowing bee, Amegilla dawsoni (Hymenoptera: Anthophorini). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 50:81-89

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins JL, LeBas NR, Unrug J, Radwan J (2004) Testing the status-dependent ESS model: population variation in fighter expression in the mite Sancassania berlesei. J Evol Biol 17:1377-1388

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tomkins JL, Kotiaho JS, LeBas NR (2005) Phenotypic plasticity in the developmental integration of morphological trade-offs and secondary sexual trait compensation. Proc R Soc Lond B 272:543-551

    Google Scholar 

  • Toth AL, Varala K, Newman TC, Miguez FE, Hutchison SK, Willoughby DA, Simons JF, Egholm M, Hunt JH, Hudson ME, Robinson GE (2007) Wasp gene expression supports an evolutionary link between maternal behavior and eusociality. Science 318:441-444

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Trumbo ST (1996) Parental care in invertebrates. Adv Stud Behav 25:3-51

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsubaki Y (2003) The genetic polymorphism linked to mate-securing strategies in the male damselfly Mnais costalis Selys (Odonata: Calopterygidae). Popul Ecol 45:263-266

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsubaki Y, Ono T (1986) Competition for territorial sites and alternative mating tactics in the dragonfly, Nannophya pygmaea Rambur (Odonata, Libellulidae). Behaviour 97:234-252

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsubaki Y, Hooper RE, Siva-Jothy MT (1997) Differences in adult and reproductive lifespan in the two male forms of Mnais pruinosa costalis Selys (Odonata: Calopterygidae). Res Popul Ecol 39:149-155

    Google Scholar 

  • Unrug J, Tomkins JL, Radwan J (2004) Alternative phenotypes and sexual selection: can dichotomous handicaps honestly signal quality? Proc R Soc Lond B 271:1401-1406

    Google Scholar 

  • Utami SS, Goossens B, Bruford MW, de Ruiter JR, van Hooff JARAM (2002) Male bimaturism and reproductive success in Sumatran orang-utans. Behav Ecol 13:643-652

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Assem J (1967) Territory in the three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus L.: an experimental study in intra-specific competition. Behaviour (suppl) 16:1-164

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Berghe EP (1988) Piracy: a new alternative male reproductive tactic. Nature 334:697-698

    Google Scholar 

  • van Rhijn JG (1973). Behavioural dimorphism in male ruffs, Philomachus pugnax (L.). Behaviour 47:153-229

    Google Scholar 

  • Vehrencamp SL (1983) A model for the evolution of despotic versus egalitarian societies. Anim Behav 31:667-682

    Google Scholar 

  • Via S, Lande R (1985) Genotype-environment interaction and the evolution of phenotypic plasticity. Evolution 39:505-522

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner WE (2005) Male field crickets that provide reproductive benefits to females incur higher costs. Ecol Entomol 30:350-357

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker SE, Cade WH (2003) A simulation model of the effects of frequency dependence, density dependence and parasitoid flies on the fitness of male field crickets. Ecol Modell 169:119-130

    Google Scholar 

  • Waltz EC (1982) Alternative mating tactics and the law of diminishing returns – the satellite threshold model. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 10:75-83

    Google Scholar 

  • Waltz EC, Wolf LL (1984) By Jove – why do alternative mating tactics assume so many different forms? Am Zool 24:333-343

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner RR, Robertson DR, Leigh EG Jr (1975) Sex change and sexual selection. Science 190:633-638

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Watts DP (1998) Coalitionary mate guarding by male chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 44:43-55

    Google Scholar 

  • West-Eberhard MJ (1989) Phenotypic plasticity and the origins of diversity. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 20:249-278

    Google Scholar 

  • West-Eberhard MJ (2003) Developmental Plasticity and Evolution. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Westneat DF, Stewart IRK (2003) Extra-pair paternity in birds: causes, correlates, and conflict. Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 34:365-396

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitfield CW, Cziko A-M, Robinson GE (2003) Gene expression profiles in the brain predict behavior in individual honey bees. Science 302:296-299

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Widemo F (1998) Alternative reproductive strategies in the ruff, Philomachus pugnax: a mixed ESS? Anim Behav 56:329-336

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wikelski M, Carbone C, Trillmich F (1996) Lekking in marine iguanas: female grouping and male reproductive strategies. Anim Behav 52:581-596

    Google Scholar 

  • Wikelski M, Steiger SS, Gall B, Nelson KN (2005) Sex, drugs and mating role: testosterone-induced phenotype-switching in Galapagos marine iguanas. Behav Ecol 16:260-268

    Google Scholar 

  • Wirtz P (1982) Territory holders, satellite males and bachelor males in a high density population of waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) and their associations with conspecifics. Z Tierpsychol 58:277-300

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolf M, van Doorn GS, Leimar O, Weissing FJ (2007) Life-history trade-offs favour the evolution of animal personalities. Nature 447:581-584

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff JO (2008) Alternative reproductive tactics in nonprimate male mammals. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 356-372

    Google Scholar 

  • Wolff JO, Cicirello DM (1990) Mobility versus territoriality: alternative reproductive strategies in white-footed mice. Anim Behav 39:1222-1224

    Google Scholar 

  • Yanagisawa Y (1985) Parental strategy of the cichlid fish Perissodus microlepis, with particular reference to intraspecific brood ‘farming out’. Env Biol Fish 12:241-249

    Google Scholar 

  • Yom-Tov Y (2001) An updated list and some comments on the occurrence of intraspecific nest parasitism in birds. Ibis 143:133-143

    Google Scholar 

  • Yom-Tov Y (1980) Intraspecific nest parasitism in birds. Biol Rev 55:93-108

    Google Scholar 

  • Zamudio KR, Chan LM (2008) Alternative reproductive tactics in amphibians. In: Oliveira RF, Taborsky M, Brockmann HJ (eds) Alternative Reproductive Tactics: An Integrative Approach. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 300-331

    Google Scholar 

  • Zamudio KR, Sinervo E (2000) Polygyny, mate-guarding, and posthumous fertilization as alternative male mating strategies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:14427-14432

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zera AJ, Harshman LG (2001) The physiology of life history trade-offs in animals. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 32:95-126

    Google Scholar 

  • Zera AJ, Huang Y (1999) Evolutionary endocrinology of juvenile hormone esterase: functional relationship with wing polymorphism in the cricket, Gryllus firmus. Evolution 53:837-847

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zera AJ, Rankin MA (1989) Wing dimorphism in Gryllus rubens: genetic basis of morph determination and fertility differences between morphs. Oecologia 80:249-255

    Google Scholar 

  • Zera AJ, Zhang C (1995) Evolutionary endocrinology of juvenile hormone esterase in Gryllus assimilis: direct and correlated responses to selection. Genetics 141:1125-1134

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao Z, Zera AJ (2002) Differential lipid biosynthesis underlies a tradeoff between reproduction and flight capability in a wing-polymorphic cricket. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:16829-16834

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerer EJ, Kallman KD (1989) Genetic basis for alterntive reproductive tactics in the pygmy swordtail, Xiphophorus nigrensis. Evolution 43:1298-1307

    Google Scholar 

  • Zink AG (2003) Intraspecific brood parasitism as a conditional reproductive tactic in the treehopper Publilia concava. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 54:406-415

    Google Scholar 

  • Zupanc GKH, Lamprecht J (2000) Towards a cellular understanding of motivation: structural reorganization and biochemical switching as key mechanisms of behavioral plasticity. Ethology 106:467-477

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. Behavioural Ecology, Institute of Zoology, University of Bern, Hinterkappelen, Bern, Switzerland

    Michael Taborsky

  2. Dept. of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA

    H. Jane Brockmann

Authors
  1. Michael Taborsky
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. H. Jane Brockmann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. of Sociobiology/Anthropology & CRC Evolution of Social Behavior & German Primate Center, Behavioral Ecology & Sociobiology Unit, University of Göttingen, Kellnerweg 6, 37077, Göttingen, Germany

    Peter Kappeler

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2010 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Taborsky, M., Brockmann, H. (2010). Alternative reproductive tactics and life history phenotypes. In: Kappeler, P. (eds) Animal Behaviour: Evolution and Mechanisms. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-02624-9_18

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation