Near Field Probes: From Optical Fibers to Optical Nanoantennas

  • Eugenio Cefalì
  • Salvatore Patanè
  • Salvatore Spadaro
  • Renato Gardelli
  • Matteo Albani
  • Maria Allegrini
Chapter
Part of the Nano Science and Technolgy book series (NANO)

Abstract

This chapter reports a broad overview of near-field optical probes. They represent the key components for the performance of the scanning near field optical microscope (SNOM). In this frame, we consider the two main classes of sensors: aperture and apertureless probes. In particular, attention is focused on optical fiber probes and on nanoantenna probes. Recent developments in the improvement of optical throughput and in the control of the near field polarization state are reported. The electromagnetic field distributions of the nanometric optical source, as well as the fabrication methods are dealt with. In order to provide a clear, complete and comprehensive description of the technique, brief explanations of the working principles of the SNOM and conventional microscopy are given. Finally, this chapter is tale about recent SNOM applications that have been widened thanks to the improved features of the probes.

Keywords

Cone Angle Metal Coating Extinction Ratio Optical Antenna Aperture Probe 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. 1.
    Synge EH (1928) Philos Mag 6:356CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Novotny L, Hecht B (2006) Principles of nano-optics. Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Hecht B, Sick B, Wild UP, Deckert V, Zenobi R, OJF Martin, Pohl DW (2000) J Chem Phys 112:7761CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Zenhausern F, O’Boyle MP, Wickramasinghe HK (1994) Appl Phys Lett 65:1623CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Bachelot R, Gleyzes P, Boccara AC (1995) Opt Lett 20:1924CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Inouye Y, Kawata S (1994) Opt Lett 19: 159CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Abbé M (1873) Arch Mikroscop Anat Entwicklungsmech 9:413CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Hermann B (1998) Fluorescence microscopy, 2nd edn. BIOS, OxfordGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Schaefer LH, Schuster D, Herz H (2001) J Microsc 204:99MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Shotton DM (1989) J Cell Sci 94: 175Google Scholar
  11. 11.
    Stephens DJ, Allan V J (2003) Science 300:82CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Gustafson MGL, Agard DA, Sedat JW (1999) J Microsc 195:10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Wells WA (2004) J Cell Biol 164:337CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Egner A, Verrier S, Goroshkov A, Soling HD, Hell SW (2004) J Struct Biol 147:70CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Pohl DW, Denk W, Lanz M (1984) Appl Phys Lett 44:651CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Lewis A, Isaacson M, Harootunian A, Muray A (1984) Ultramicroscopy 13:227CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    De Serio M, Zenobi R, Deckert V (2003) Trends Anal Chem 22:70CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Durig U, Pohl DW, Rohner F (1986) J Appl Phys 59:3318CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Toledo-Crow R, Yang P, Chen Y, Vaez-Iravani M (1992) Appl Phys Lett 60:2957CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Betzig E, Finn P, Weiner S (1992) Appl Phys Lett 60:2484CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Karrai K, Grober RD (1995) Ultramicroscopy 61:197CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Okajima T, Hirotsu S (1997) Appl Phys Lett 71:545CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Davy S, Spajer M, Coujon D (1998) Appl Phys Lett 73:2594CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Gregor M, Blome P, Schofer J, Ulbrich R (1996) Appl Phys Lett 68:307CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Smolyaninov II, Atia WA, Pilevar S, Davis CC (1998) Ultramicroscopy 71:177CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Wei CC, Wei PK, Fann W (1995) Appl Phys Lett 67:3835CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Durkan C, Shvets IV (1996) J Appl Phys 79:1219CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Seidel J, Grafström S, Loppacher C, Trogisch S, Schlaphof F, Eng LM (2001) Appl Phys Lett 79:2291CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Aigouy L, Andréani FX, Boccara AC, Rivoal JC, Porto JA, Carminati R, JJ Greffet JJ, Mégy R (2000) Appl Phys Lett 76:397CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Courjon D, Sarayeddine K, Spajer M (1989) Opt Commun 71:23CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Reddick RC, Warmack RJ, Ferrel TL (1989) Phys Rev B 39:767CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Zenhausern F, Martin Y, Wickramasinghe H (1995) Science 269:1083CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Betzig E, Trautman JK, Harris TD, Weiner JS, Kostelak RL (1991) Science 251:1468CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Sqalli O, Bernal MP, Hoffmann P, Marquis-Weible F (2000) Appl Phys Lett 76:2134CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Kalkbrenner T, Ramstein M, Mlynek J, Sandoghdar V (2001) J Microsc 202:72MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Novotny L, Stranick SJ (2006) Annu Rev Phys Chem 57:303CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Nakajima K, Micheletto R, Mitsui K, Isoshima T, Hara M, Wada T, Sasabe H, Knoll W (1999) Appl Surf Sci 144 520Google Scholar
  38. 38.
    Cefalì E, Patanè S, Gucciardi PG, Labardi M, Allegroni M (2003) J Microsc 210:262MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Grober RD, Harris TD, Trautman JK, Betzig E (1994) Rev Sci Instrum 65:626CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Durand Y, Woehl JC, Viellerobe B, Gohde W, Orrit M (1999) Rev Sci Instrum 70:1318CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Gray MH, Hsu JWP (1999) Rev Sci Instrum 70:3355CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Hess HF, Betzig E, Harris TD, Pfeiffer LN, West KW (1994) Science 264:1740CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Emiliani V, Lienau C, Hauert M, Coli G, DeGiorgi M, Rinaldi R, Passaseo A, Cingolani R (1999) Phys Rev B 60:13335CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Lomascolo M, Vergine A, Johal TK, Rinaldi R, Passaseo A, Cingolani R, Patanè S, Labardi M, Allegrini M, Troiani F, Molinari E (2002) Phys Rev B 66:041302CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Michaelis J, Hettich C, Zayats A, Eiermann B, Mlynek J, Sandoghdar V (1999) Opt Lett 24:581CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Baez A (1956) J Opt Soc Am 46:901CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Ash EA, Nicholls G (1972) Nature 237:510CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Massey GA (1984) Appl Opt 23:658CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Fischer UC, Durig U, Pohl DW (1987) Scanning Microsc Suppl 1 47Google Scholar
  50. 50.
    Moers MHP, Tack RG, Noordman OFJ, Segerink FB, van Hulst NF, Bolger B (1993) In: Near field optics. NATO ASI series E, vol 242. NATO/Kluwer, DordrechtGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Baida F, Courjon D, Tribillon G (1993) In: Near field optics. NATO ASI series E, vol 242. NATO/Kluwer, DordrechtGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Veerman JA Otter AM, Kuipers L, van Hulst NF (1998) Appl Phys Lett 72:3115CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Muranishi M, Sato K, Hosaka S, Kikukawa A, Shintani T, Ito K (1997) Jpn J Appl Phys 36:942CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Bachelot R, Gleyzes P, Boccara AC (1997) Appl Opt 36:2160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Inouye Y, Kawata S (1997) Opt Commun 134:31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Jin RC, Chao YW, Mirkin CA, Kelly KL, Schatz GC, Zheng JG (2001) Science 294:1901CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Mock JJ, Barbic M, Smith DR, Schultz DA, Schultz S (2002) J Chem Phys 116:6755CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Gole A, Murphy CJ (2004) Chem Mater 16:3633CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Danzebrink HU, Fischer UC (1993) Near field optics. NATO ASI series E, vol 242. NATO/Kluwer, DordrechtGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Gottlich H, Heckl WM (1995) Ultramicroscopy 61:145CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Kopelman R, Tan W, Shi ZY, Birnbaun D (1993) Near field optics. NATO ASI series E, vol 242. NATO/Kluwer, DordrechtGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Fischer UC (1993) In: Near field optics. NATO ASI series E, vol 242. NATO/Kluwer, DordrechtGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Marcuse D (1989) Light transmission optics. Krieger, MalabarGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Novotny L, Hafner C (1994) Phys Rev E 50:4094CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Novotny L, Pohl DW, Hecht B (1995) Ultramicroscopy 61:1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Girard C (2005) Rep Prog Phys 68:1883CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Bethe H (1944) Phys Rev 66:163MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Bouwkamp C (1950) Philips Res Rep 5:321MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Hallen HD, Jahncke CL (2003) J Raman Spectrosc 34:655CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Hallen HD, Ayars EJ, Jahncke CL (2003) J Micros 210:252MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Drezet A, Woehl JC, Huant S (2002) Phys Rev E 65:046611CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Obermuller C, Karrai K (1995) Appl Phys lett 67:3408CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Oesterschulze E, Georgiev G, Muller-Wiegand M, Vollkopf A, Rudow O (2001) J Microsc 202:39MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Novotny L, Pohl DW (1995) In: Marti O, Muller R (eds) Photons and local probes. NATO ASI series E. Kluwer, DordrechtGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Patanè S, Cefalì E, Spadaro S, Gardelli R, Albani M, Allegrini M. to be published on J MicroscGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Novotny L, Pohl DW Hecht B (1995) Opt Lett 20:970CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Stockle RM, Schaller N, Deckert V, Fokas C Zenobi R (1999) J Microsc 194:378CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Smith S, Orr B, Koppelman R, Norris T (1994) CLEO Anaheim MD Tech Dig Ser 8:147Google Scholar
  79. 79.
    Smith S, Orr B, Parent G, Van Labeke D Baida F I (2001) J Microsc 202:296MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Meixner AJ, Bopp MA, Tarrach G (1994) Appl Opt 33:7995CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Muller R, Lienau C (2001) J Microscopy 202:339MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Xie XS, Dunn RC (1994) Science 265:361CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Muramatsu H, Yamamoto N, Umemoto T, Homma K, Chiba N, Fujihira M (1997) Jpn J Appl Phys 36:5753CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Spajer M, Parent G, Bainier C, Charraut D (2001) J Microsc 202:45MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Genolet G, Despont M, Vettiger, Staufer PU, Noell W, de Rooij NF, Cueni T, Bernal MP, Marquis-Weible F (2001) Rev Sci Instrum 72:877CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Kim BJ, Flamma JW, Ten Have ES, Garcia-Parajo MF, van Hulst NF, Brugger J. (2001) J Microsc 202:16MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Demming F, Jersch J, Klein S, Dickmann K (2001) J Microsc 201:383MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Lapchuk AS, Kryuchyn AA (2004) Ultramicroscopy 99:143CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Taminiau T, Overman J, Segerink F, van Hulst N (2005) In: Proceedings of ICONIC 2005 UPC, BarcelonaGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Puygranier BA, Dawson P (2000) Ultramicroscopy 85:235CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Essaidi N, Chen Y, Kottler V, Cambril E, Mayeux C, Ronarch N, Vieu C (1998) Appl Opt 37:609CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Williamson R, Miles M (1996) J Appl Phys 80:4804CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Lazarev A, Fang N, Luo Q, Zhang X (2003) Rev Sci Instrum 74:3684CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Valaskovic G, Holton M, Morrison G (1995) Appl Opt 34:1215CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Garcia-Parajo M, Tate T, Chen Y (1995) Utramicroscopy 61:155CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Gallacchi R, Kolsch S, Kneppe H, Meixner AJ (2001) J Microsc 202:182MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Muramatsu H, Chiba N, Homma K, Nakajima K, Akata T (1995) Appl Phys Lett 66:3245CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Sarah A, Philipona C, Lambelet P, Pfeffer M, Marcuis-Weible F (1998) Ultramicroscopy 71:59CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Hoffmann P, Dutoit B, Salathe RP, (1995) Ultramicroscopy 61:165CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Matsumoto T, Ohtsu M (1996) J Lightwave Technol 14:2224CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Mononobe S, Ohtsu M (1996) J Lightwave Technol 14:2231CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Lazarev A, Fang N, Luo Q, Zhang X (2003) Rev Sci Instrum 74:3679CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Held T, Emonin S, Marti O, Hollricher O (2000) Rev Sci Instrum 71:3118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Novotny L, Pohl DW, Hecht B (1995) Opt Lett 20:970CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Zeisel D, Nettesheim S, Dutoit B, Zenobi R (1996) Appl Phys Lett 68:2491CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Wolf JF, Hillner PE, Bilewicz R, Kolsch P, Rabe JP (1999) Rev Sci Instrum 70:2751CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Drews D, Ehrfeld W, Lacher M, Mayr K, Noell W, Schmitt S, Abraham M (1999) Nanotechnology 10:61CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Noell W, Abraham M, Mayr K, Ruf A, Barenz J, Hollricher O, Marti O, Gunther P (1997) Appl Phys Lett 70:1236CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Yatsui T, Kourogi M, Ohtsu M (1998) Appl Phys Lett 73:2090CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Mononobe S, Saiki T, Suzuki T, Koshihara S, Otsu M (1998) Opt Commun 146:45CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Mononobe S, Naya M, Saiki T, Ostu M (1997) Appl Phys 36:1496Google Scholar
  112. 112.
    Muramatsu H, Homma K, Chiba N, Yamamoto N, Egawa A (1999) J. Microsc 194:383CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Stockle R, Fokas C, Deckert V, Zenobi R, Sick B, Hecht B, Wild UP (1999) Appl Phys Lett 75:160CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Patanè S, Cefalì E, Arena A, Gucciardi PG, Allegrini M (2006) Ultramicroscopy 106: 475CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Landau LD, Lifshitz EM (1987) Fluid mechanics, 2nd edn. Pergamon, OxfordMATHGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Betzig E, Trautman JK (1992) Science 257:189CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Pohl DW (ed) (1991) Scanning near-field optical microscopy (SNOM). Academic, LondonGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    Pohl DW, Denk W, Lanz M (1984) App Phys Lett 44:651CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Hsu JWP (2001) Mater Sci Eng 33:1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    McDaniel EB, SC McClain, Hsu JWP (1998) Appl Opt 37:84CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Buratto SK (1996) Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci 1:485CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. 122.
    Weston KD; Buratto SK (1997) J Phys Chem B 101:5684CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    De Aro JA, Weston KD, Buratto SK, Lemmer U (1997) Chem Phys Lett 277:532CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Weston KD, De Aro JA, Buratto SK (1996) Rev Sci Instrum 67:2924CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Hollars CW, Dunn RC (1996) Rev Sci Instrum 69:17Google Scholar
  126. 126.
    Curran JE, Page JS, Pick U (1982) Thin Solid Films 97:259CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. 127.
    Krueger WH, Pollack SR (1972) Surf Sci 30:263CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    Adiga VP, Kolb PW, Evans GT, Cubillos-Moraga MA, Schmadel DC, Dyott R, Drew HD (2006) Appl Opt 45:2597CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. 129.
    Stahelin M, Bopp MA, Tarrach G, Meixne AJ, Zschokke-Granacher I, (1996) Appl Phys Lett 68:2603CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. 130.
    Mihalcea C, Scholz W, Werner S, Münster S, Oesterschulze E, Kassing R (1996) Appl Phys Lett 68:3531CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    Oesterschulze E, Rudow O, Mihalcea C, Scholz W, Werner S (1998) Ultramicroscopy 71:85CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Labardi M, Zavelani-Rossi M, Polli D, Cerullo G, Allegrini M, De Silvestri S, Svelto O (2005) Appl Phys Lett 86:031105CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    Vollkopf A, Rudow O, Oesterschulze E (2001) J Electrochem Soc 148:G587CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Georgiev G, Müller-Wiegand M, Georgieva A, Ludolph K, Oesterschulze E (2003) J Vac Sci Technol B 21:1361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Ambrosio A, Cefalì E, Spadaro S, Patanè S, Allegrini M, Albert D, Oesterschulze E (2006) Appl Phys Lett 89:163108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Biagioni D, Polli M, Labardi A, Pucci G, Ruggeri G, Cerullo M, Finazzi Duò L (2005) Appl Phys Lett 87:223112; (2006) Appl Phys Lett 88:209901 (erratum)Google Scholar
  137. 137.
    Minh PN, Ono T, Esashi M (1999) Appl Phys Lett 75:4076CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    Minh PN, OnoT, Tanaka S, Esashi M (2001) J Microsc 28:202MathSciNetGoogle Scholar
  139. 139.
    Masaki T, Inouye Y, Kawata S (2004) Rev Sci Instrum 75:3284CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. 140.
    Vollkopf A, Rudow O, Leinhos T, Mihalcea C, Oesterschulze E (1999) J Microscopy 194:344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Schürmann G, Noell W, Staufer U, de Rooij NFR, Eckert R, Freyland JM, Heinzelmann H (2001) Appl Opt 40:5040CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Eckert R, Freyland JM, Gersen H, Heinzelmann H, Schurmann G, Noell W, Staufer U, De Rooij NF (2001) J Microsc 202:7MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  143. 143.
    Aeschimann L, Akiyama T, Staufer U, De Rooij NF, Thiery L, Eckert R., Heinzelmann H (2003) J Microsc 209:182MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  144. 144.
    Pohl DW, Novotny L, Hecht B, Heinzelmann H (1996) Thin Solid Films 273:161CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  145. 145.
    Fasolka MJ, Goldner LS, Hwang J, Urbas AM, De Rege P, Swager T, Thomas EL (2003) Phys Rev Lett 90:016107CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Ono M, Sone H, Hosaka S (2005) Jpn J Appl Phys 44:5434CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Likodimos V, Labardi M, Pardi L, Allegrini M, Giordano M, Arena A, Patanè S (2003) Appl Phys Lett 82:3313CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Lacoste T, Huser T, Prioli R, Heinzelmann H (1998) Ultramicroscopy 71:333CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Ramoino L, Labardi M, Maghelli N, Pardi L, Allegrini M, Patanè S (2002) Rev Sci Instrum 73:2051CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Ambrosio A, Alderighi M, Labardi M, Pardi L, Fuso F, Allegrini M (2004) Nanotechnology 15:S270CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  151. 151.
    Valaskovic GA, Holton M, Morrison GH (1995) J Microsc 179:29CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    Betzig E, Trautman JK, Weiner JS, Harris TD, Wolfe R (1992) Appl Opt 31:4563CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. 153.
    Novotny L, Pohl DW, Regli P (1994) J Opt Soc Am A 11:1768CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. 154.
    Huser T, Novotny L, Lacoste T, Eckert R, Heinzelmann H (1999) J Opt Soc Am A 16:141CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. 155.
    Biagioni P, Polli D, Labardi M, Pucci A, Ruggeri G, Cerullo G, Finazzi M, Duò L (2005) Appl Phys Lett 87:223112CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  156. 156.
    Tirelli N, Amabile S, Cellai C, Pucci A, Regoli L, Ruggeri G, Ciardelli F (2001) Macromolecules 34:2129CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  157. 157.
    Adelmann C, Hetzler J, Scheiber G, Schimmel T, Wegener M. Weber B, Lohneysen HV (1999) Appl Phys Lett 74:179CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  158. 158.
    Veerman JA, Otter AM, Kuipers L, van Hulst NF (1998) Appl Phys Lett 72:3115CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  159. 159.
    Veerman JA, Garcia-Parajo MF, Kuipers L, van Hulst NF (1999) J Microsc 194:477CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  160. 160.
    Pilevar S, Edinger K, Atia W, Smolyaninov I, Davis C (1998) Appl Phys Lett 72:3133CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  161. 161.
    Mitsui T, Sekiguchi T (2004) J Electron Microsc 53:209CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  162. 162.
    Mitsui T (2005) Rev Sci Instrum 76:043703CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. 163.
    Zakharian A, Mansuripur M, Moloney (2004) J Opt Express 12:2631CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  164. 164.
    Patanè S, Gucciardi PG, Labardi M, Allegrini M (2004) Riv Nuovo Cimento 27:1Google Scholar
  165. 165.
    Zhong Q, Inniss D, Kjoller K, Elings VB (1993) Surf Sci Lett 290:L688Google Scholar
  166. 166.
    Anderson MS, Pike WT (2002) Rev Sci Instrum 73:1198CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. 167.
    Melmed AJ (1991) J Vac Sci Technol B 9:601CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  168. 168.
    Kulawik M, Nowicki M, Thielsch G, Cramer L, Rust HP, Freund HJ, Pearl TP, Weiss PS (2003) Rev Sci Instrum 74:1027CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  169. 169.
    Fotino M (1992) Appl Phys Lett 60:8CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  170. 170.
    Dickmann K, Demming F, Jersch J (1996) Rev Sci Instrum 67:845CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  171. 171.
    Billot L, Berguiga L, de la Chapellea ML, Gilbert Y, Bachelot R (2005) Eur Phys J Appl Phys 31:39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  172. 172.
    Libioulle L, Houibion Y, Gilles JM, (1995) J Vac Sci Technol B 13:1325CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  173. 173.
    Vasile MJ, Biddick C, Huggins H (1994) Appl Phys Lett 72:575CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  174. 174.
    Hartschuh A, Sanchez EJ, Xie XS, Novotny L (2003) Phys Rev Lett 90:095503CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  175. 175.
    Hecht B, Bielefeldt H, Inouye Y, Pohl DW, Novotny L (1997) J Appl Phys 81:2492CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  176. 176.
    Novotny L, Bian RX, Xie XS (1997) Phys Rev Lett 79:645CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  177. 177.
    Martin OJF, Girard C (1997) Appl Phys Lett 70:705CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  178. 178.
    Novotny L, Sanchez EJ, Xie XS (1998) Ultramicroscopy 71:21CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  179. 179.
    Sanchez EJ, Novotny L, Xie XS (1999) Phys Rev Lett 82:4014CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  180. 180.
    Muhlschlegel P, Eisler HJ, Martin OJF, Hecht B, Pohl DW (2005) Science 308:1607CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  181. 181.
    Schuck PJ,Fromm DP, Sundaramurthy A, Kino GS, Moerner WE (2005) Phys Rev Lett 94:017402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  182. 182.
    Grober RD, Schoelkopf RJ, Prober DE (1997) Appl Phys Lett 70:1354CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  183. 183.
    Farahani JN, Pohl DW, Eisler HJ, Hecht B (2005) Phys Rev Lett 95:017402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  184. 184.
    Novotny L, Bain RX, Xie XS (1997) Phys Rev Lett 79: 645CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  185. 185.
    Zenhausern F, Martin Y, Wickramasinghe HK (1995) Science 269: 1083CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  186. 186.
    Hillenbrand R, Keilmann F (2000) Phys Rev Lett 85:3029CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  187. 187.
    Aigouy L, Andreani FX, Boccara AC, Rivoal JC, Porto JA, Carminati R, Greffet JJ, Megry R (2000) Appl Phys Lett 76:397CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  188. 188.
    Wessel J (1985) J Opt Soc Am B 2:1538CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  189. 189.
    Nie S, Emroy SR (1997) Science 275:1102CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  190. 190.
    Bouhelier A, Beversluis MR, Hartschuh A, Novotny L (2003) Phys Rev Lett 90:13903CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  191. 191.
    Bouhelier A, Beversluis MR, Novotny L (2003) Appl Phys Lett 82:4596CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  192. 192.
    Alda J,. Rico-García JM, López-Alonso JM, Boreman G (2005) Egypt J Solids 28:1Google Scholar
  193. 193.
    Fumeaux C, Alda J, Boreman GD (1999) Opt Lett 24:1629CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  194. 194.
    Farahni JN, Pohl DW, Eisler HJ, Hecht B (2005) Phys Rev Lett 95:017402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  195. 195.
    Alda J, Rico-García JM, López-Alonso JM, Boreman G (2005) Nanotechnology 16:S230CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  196. 196.
    Alda J, Fumeaux C, Codreanu I, Schaefer JA, Boreman GD (1999) Appl Opt 38:3993CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  197. 197.
    Grober RD, Schoellkopf RJ, Prober DE (1997) Appl Phys Lett 70:1354CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  198. 198.
    Fromm DP, Sundaramurthy A, Schuck PJ, Kino G, Moerner WE, (2004) Nano Lett 4:957CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  199. 199.
    Schuck PJ, Fromm DP, Sundaramurthy A, Kino G, Moerner WE (2005) Phys Rev Lett 94:017402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  200. 200.
    Kalkbrenner T, Hakanson U, Schadle A, Burger S, Henkel C, Sandoghdar V (2005) Phys Rev Lett 95:200801CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  201. 201.
    Anger P, Bharadwaj P, Novotny L (2006) Phys Rev Lett 96:113002CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  202. 202.
    Kuhn S, Hakanson U, Rogobete L, Sandoghdar V (2006) Phys Rev Lett 97:017402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  203. 203.
    Sundaramurthy A, Crozier KB, Kino GS, Ginzton EL, Fromm DP, Schuck PJ, Moerner WE (2005) Phys Rev B 72:165409CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  204. 204.
    Balanis C (1997) Antenna theory: analysis and design, 2nd edn. Wiley, New YorkGoogle Scholar
  205. 205.
    Frey HG, Keilmann F, Kriele A, Guckenberger R (2002) Appl Phys Lett 81:5030CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  206. 206.
    Taminiau TH, Moerland RJ, Segerink F, Van Hulst N (2007) Nano Lett 7:28CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  207. 207.
    Labardi M, Coppedè N, Pardi L, Allegrini M, Giordano M, Patanè S, Arena A, Cefalì E (2003) Mol Cryst Liq Cryst 398:33CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  208. 208.
    Ambrosio A, Cefalì E, Spadaro S, Patane S, Allegrini M, Albert D, Oesterschulze E (2006) Appl Phys Lett 89:163108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  209. 209.
    Hillenbrand R, Keilmann F (2002) Appl Phys Lett 80:25CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  210. 210.
    Stockle RM, Suh YD, Deckert V, Zenobi R (2000) Chem Phys Lett 318:131CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  211. 211.
    Hartschuh A, Sánchez EJ, Xie XS, Novotny L (2003) Phys Rev Lett 90:095503CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  212. 212.
    Ichimura T, Hayazawa N, Hashimoto M, Inouye Y, Kawata S (2004) Phys Rev Lett 92:220801CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  213. 213.
    Gerton JM, Wade LA, Lessard GA, Ma Z, Quake SR (2004) Phys Rev Lett 93:180801CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  214. 214.
    Betzig E, Chichester RJ (1993) Science 262:1422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  215. 215.
    Azoulay J, Débarre A, Richard A, Tchénio P (2000) Europhys Lett 51:374CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  216. 216.
    Trabesinger W, Kramer A, Kreiter M, Hecht B, Wild UP (2002) Appl Phys Lett 81:2118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  217. 217.
    Schuck PJ, Fromm DP, Sundaramurthy A, Kino GS, Moerner WE (2005) Phys Rev Lett 94:017402CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  218. 218.
    Muhlschlegel P et al (2005) Science 308:1607CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  219. 219.
    Ma Z, Gerton JM, Wade LA, Quake SR (2006) Phys Rev Lett 97:260801CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  220. 220.
    Labardi M, Zavelani-Rossi M, Polli D, Cerullo G, Allegrini M, De Silvestri S, Svelto O (2004) Opt Lett 29:62CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  221. 221.
    Zayats AV, Sandoghdar V (2001) J Microsc 202:94MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  222. 222.
    Anderson N, Bouhelier A, Novotny L (2006) J Opt A Pure Appl Opt 8:S227CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2008

Authors and Affiliations

  • Eugenio Cefalì
    • 1
  • Salvatore Patanè
    • 1
  • Salvatore Spadaro
    • 1
  • Renato Gardelli
    • 1
  • Matteo Albani
    • 2
  • Maria Allegrini
    • 3
  1. 1.Dipartimento di Fisica della Materia e Tecnologie Fisiche AvanzateUniversità di MessinaMessinaItaly
  2. 2.Dipartimento di Ingegneria dell’InformazioneUniversità di SienaSienaItaly
  3. 3.Dipartimento di Fisica “Enrico Fermi”Università di PisaPisaItaly

Personalised recommendations