The New Political Psychology of Voting

  • Marco R. Steenbergen

Abstarct

Psychological approaches have played a central role in electoral research at least since the publication of The American Voter (Campbell et al. 1976). The early work drew from the then dominant currents in social psychology. In the 1960s, this meant a heavy emphasis on beliefs and attitudes. Thus, the Michigan voting model gave a central place to partisan attachments, perceptions of the issues, and appraisals of political candidates. It also took a close look at the manner in which voters reasoned about political parties, candidates, and issues, demonstrating for the United States that ideological constraint played a relatively minor role. While the early attempts at psychologizing the vote choice were not without detractors, their success and impact can be measured by their continued appeal and the large volume of studies that have been produced in this framework.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Abelson, Robert P./Kinder, Donald R./Peters, Mark D. (1982): Affective and Semantic Components in Political Person Perception. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42, 619–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Adolphs, Ralph (2003): Cognitive Neuroscience of Human Social Behaviour. In: Nature Reviews Neuroscience 4, 165–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Alvarez, Michael R./Brehm, John (1995): American Ambivalence towards Abortion Policy. Development of a Heteroskedastic Probit Model of Competing Values. In: American Journal of Political Science 39, 1055–1082.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Anderson, John R. (1983): The Architecture of Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  5. Arcuri, Luciano/Castelli, Luigi/Galdi, Silvia/Zogmaister, Cristina/Amadori, Alessandro (2008): Predicting the Vote. Implicit Attitudes as Predictors of the Future Behavior of Decided and Undecided Voters. In: Political Psychology 29, 369–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Bargh, John A./Chaiken, Shelly/Govender, Rajen/Pratto, Felicia (1992): The Generality of the Automatic Attitude Activation Effect. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62, 893–912.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Bartels, Larry M. (2000): Partisanship and Voting Behavior, 1952–1996. In: American Journal of Political Science 44, 35–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Basinger, Scott J./Lavine, Howard (2005): Ambivalence, Information, and Electoral Choice. In: American Political Science Review 99, 169–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Berelson, Bernard (1958): Democratic Theory and Public Opinion. In: Public Opinion Quarterly 16, 313–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Berelson, Bernard R./Lazarsfeld, Paul F./McPhee, William N. (1986): Voting. A Study of Opinion Formation in a Presidential Campaign. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  11. Brader, Ted (2005): Striking a Responsive Chord. How Political Ads Motivate and Persuade Voters by Appealing to Emotions. In: American Journal of Political Science 49, 388–405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Brader, Ted (2006): Campaigning for Hearts and Minds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  13. Burdein, Inna/Lodge, Milton/Taber, Charles S. (2006): Experiments on the Automaticity of Political Beliefs and Attitudes. In: Political Psychology 27, 359–371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Campbell, Angus/Converse, Philip E./Miller, Warren E./Stokes, Donald E. (1976): The American Voter. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  15. Chen, Serena/Chaiken, Shelly (1999a): The Heuristic-Systematic Model in its Broader Context. In: Chaiken, Shelly/Trope, Yaacov (Hrsg.) (1999): Dual-Process Theories in Social and Cognitive Psychology. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
  16. Chen, Serena/Chaiken, Shelly (1999b): Motivated Heuristic and Systematic Processing. In: Psychological Inquiry 10, 44–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Collins, Allan M./Loftus, Elizabeth F. (1975): A Spreading-Activation Theory of Semantic Processing. In: Psychological Review 82, 407–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Conover, Pamela J./Feldman, Stanley (1984): How People Organize the Political World. A Schematic Model. In: American Journal of Political Science 28, 95–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. Conover, Pamela J./Feldman, Stanley (1986): The Role of Inference in the Perception of Political Candidates. In: Lau, Richard R./Sears, David O. (Hrsg.) (1986): Political Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  20. Converse, Philip E. (1964): The Nature of Belief Systems in Mass Publics. In: Apter, David E. (Hrsg.) (1964): Ideology and Discontent. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
  21. Cutler, Frank (2002): The Simplest Shortcut of All. Sociodemographic Characteristics and Electoral Choice. In: Journal of Politics 64, 466–490.Google Scholar
  22. Damasio, Antonio R. (1994): Descartes’ Error. Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain. New York: G.P. Putnam.Google Scholar
  23. Delli Carpini, Michael X./Keeter, Scott (1996): What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
  24. Devine, Patricia G. (1989): Stereotypes and Prejudice. Their Automatic and Controlled Components. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56, 5–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Fazio, Russel H./Sanbonmatsu, David M./Powell, Martha/Kardes, Frank R. (1986): On the Automatic Activation of Attitudes. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50, 229–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Fischle, Mark (2000): Mass Response to the Lewinsky Scandal. Motivated Reasoning or Bayesian Updating? In: Political Psychology 21, 135–159.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. Fiske, Susan T. (1986): Schema-Based Versus Piecemeal Politics. A Patchwork Quilt, but Not a Blanket, of Evidence. In: Lau, Richard R./Sears, David O. (Hrsg.) (1986): Political Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  28. Fiske, Susan T./Kinder, Donald R. (1981): Involvement, Expertise, and Schema Use. Evidence from Political Cognition. In: Cantor, Nancy/Kiglstrom, John (Hrsg.) (1981): Personality, Cognition, and Social Interaction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  29. Fiske, Susan T./Kinder, Donald R./Larter, W. Michael (1983): The Novice and the Expert. Knowledge-Based Strategies in Political Cognition. In: Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 19, 381–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. Fiske, Susan T./Neuberg, Steven (1990): A Continuum Model of Impression Formation from Category-Based to Individuating Responses. Influences of Information and Motivation on Attention and Interpretation. In: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 23, 1–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Fiske, Susan T./Ruscher, Janet B. (1989): On-Line Processes in Category-Based and Individuating Impressions. Some Basic Principles and Methodological Reflections. In: Bassili, John N. (Hrsg.) (1989): On-Line Cognition in Person Perception. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  32. Fiske, Susan T./Taylor, Shelley E. (1991): Social Cognition. 2. Auflage. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
  33. Frey, Dieter (1986): Recent Research on Selective Exposure to Information. In: Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 19, 41–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. Gomez, Brad T./Wilson, J. Matthew (2001): Political Sophistication and Economic Voting in the American Electorate. A Theory of Heterogeneous Attribution. In: American Journal of Political Science 45, 899–914.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Gordon, Stacy B./Segura, Gary M. (1997): Cross-National Variation in the Political Sophistication of Individuals. Capability or Choice? In: Journal of Politics 59, 126–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Goren, Paul (2003): Race, Sophistication, and White Opinion on Government Spending. In: Political Behavior 25, 201–220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Goren, Paul (2004): Political Sophistication and Policy Reasoning. A Reconsideration. In: American Journal of Political Science 48, 462–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Granberg, Donald/Brown, Thad A. (1989): On Affect and Cognition in Politics. In: Social Psychology Quarterly 52, 171–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Hamill, Ruth/Lodge, Milton (1986): Cognitive Consequences of Political Sophistication. In: Lau, Richard R./Sears, David O. (Hrsg.) (1986): Political Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  40. Heberlein, Andrea S./Adolphs, Ralph/Pennebaker, James W./Tranel, Daniel (2003): Effects of Damage to Right-Hemisphere Brain Structures on Spontaneous Emotional and Social Judgments. In: Political Psychology 24, 705–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Herstein, John A. (1981): Keeping the Voter’s Limits in Mind. A Cognitive Process Analysis of Decision Making in Voting. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 40, 843–861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Hertel, Guido/Bless, Herbert (2000): ‘On-line’ und erinnerungsgestützte Urteilsbildung. Auslösefaktoren und Empirische Unterscheidungsmöglichkeiten. In: Psychologische Rundschau 51, 19–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Isbell, Linda M./Ottati, Victor C. (2002): The Emotional Voter. In: Ottati, Victor C./Tindale, Scott/Edwards, John/Bryant, Fred B./Heath, Linda/O’Connell, Daniel C./Suarez-Balcazar, Yolanda/Posavac, Emil J. (Hrsg.) (2002): The Social Psychology of Politics. New York: Kluwer.Google Scholar
  44. Isbell, Linda M./Ottati, Victor C./Burns, Kathleen C. (2006): Affect and Politics. Effects on Judgement, Processing and Information Seeking. In: Redlawsk, David P. (Hrsg.) (2006): Feeling Politics. Emotion in Political Information Processing. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
  45. Izard, Carroll E. (1977): Human Emotions. New York: Plenum.Google Scholar
  46. Jerit, Jennifer/Barabas, Jason/Bolsen, Toby (2006): Citizens, Knowledge, and the Information Environment. In: American Journal of Political Science 50, 266–282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Klapper, Joseph T. (1960): The Effects of Mass Communication. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.Google Scholar
  48. Krosnick, Jon A. (1990): Government Policy and Citizen Passion. A Study of Issue Publics in Contemporary America. In: Political Behavior 12, 59–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Kuklinski, James H./Hurley, Norman L. (1994): On Hearing and Interpreting Political Messahes. A Cautionary Tale of Citizen Cue-Taking. In: Journal of Politics 56, 729–751.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Kuklinski, James H./Luskin, Robert C./Bolland, John (1991): Where Is the Schema? Going beyond the “S” Word in Political Psychology. In: American Political Science Review 85, 1341–1356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. Kunda, Ziva (1990): The Case for Motivated Reasoning. In: Psychological Bulletin 108, 480–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Ladd, Jonathan McDonald/Lenz, Gabriel S. (2008): Reassessing the Role of Anxiety in Vote Choice. In: Political Psychology 29, 275–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Lau, Richard R. (1986): Political Schemata, Candidate Evaluations, and Voting Behavior. In: Lau, Richard R./Sears, David O. (Hrsg.) (1986): Political Cognition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  54. Lau, Richard R./Redlawsk, David P. (1997): Voting Correctly. In: American Political Science Review 91, 585–598.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Lau, Richard R./Redlawsk, David P. (2001): Advantages and Disadvantages of Cognitive Heuristics in Political Decision Making. In: American Journal of Political Science 45, 951–971.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Lau, Richard R./Redlawsk, David P. (2006): How Voters Decide. Information Processing during Election Campaigns. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  57. Lavine, Howard (2001): The Electoral Consequences of Ambivalence toward Presidential Candidates. In: American Journal of Political Science 45, 915–929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Lavine, Howard/Steenbergen, Marco (2005): Group Ambivalence and Electoral Decision-Making. In: Craig, Stephen C./Martinez, Michael (Hrsg.) (2005): Ambivalence, Politics, and Public Policy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
  59. Lazarsfeld, Paul F./Berelson, Bernard/Gaudet, Hazel (1968): The People’s Choice. How the Voter Makes up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
  60. Lodge, Milton/Hamill, Ruth (1986): A Partisan Schema for Political Information Processing. In: American Political Science Review 80, 505–520.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Lodge, Milton/McGraw, Kathleen M./Stroh, Patrick (1989): An Impression-Driven Model of Candidate Evaluation. In: American Political Science Review 83, 399–419.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. Lodge, Milton/Stroh, Patrick (1993): Inside the Mental Voting Booth. An Impression-Driven Model of Candidate Evaluation. In: Iyengar, Shanto/McGuire, William J. (Hrsg.) (1993): Explorations in Political Psychology. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
  63. Lodge, Milton/Taber, Charles S. (2000): Three Steps toward a Theory of Motivated Political Reasoning. In: Lupia, Arthur/McCubbins, Mathew D./Popkin, Samuel L. (Hrsg.) (2000): Elements of Reason. Cognition, Choice, and the Bounds of Rationality. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  64. Lodge, Milton/Taber, Charles S. (2005): The Automaticity of Affect for Political Leaders, Groups, and Issues. An Experimental Test of the Hot Cognition Hypothesis. In: Political Psychology 26, 455–482.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Lodge, Milton/Steenbergen, Marco R./Brau, Shawn (1995): The Responsive Voter. Campaign Information and the Dynamics of Candidate Evaluation. In: American Political Science Review 89, 309–326.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Lodge, Milton/Taber, Charles S./Weber, Christopher (2006): First Steps Towards a Dual-Process Accessibility Model of Political Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behavior. In: Redlawsk, David P. (Hrsg.) (2006): Feeling politics. Emotion in Political Information Processing. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
  67. Lupia, Arthur/McCubbins, Mathew D. (1998): The Democratic Dilemma. Can Citizens Learn What They Need to Know? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  68. Macdonald, Stuart/Rabinowitz, George/Listhaug, Ola (1995): Political Sophistication and Models of Issue Voting. In: British Journal of Political Science 25, 453–483.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Marcus, George E. (2003): The Psychology of Emotion and Politics. In: Sears, David O./Huddy, Leonie/Jervis, Robert (Hrsg.) (2003): Handbook of Political Psychology. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  70. Marcus, George E./MacKuen, Michael B./Wolak, Jennifer/Keele, Luke (2006): The Measure and Mismeasure of Emotion. In: Redlawsk, David (Hrsg.) (2006): Feeling Politics. Emotion in Political Information Processing. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
  71. Marcus, George E./Neuman, W. Russell/MacKuen, Michael B. (2000): Affective Intelligence and Political Judgment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  72. McDermott, Monika L. (1998): Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections. In: Political Research Quarterly 51, 895–918.Google Scholar
  73. McDermott, Monika L. (2005): Candidate Occupations and Voter Information Shortcuts. In: Journal of Politics 67, 201–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. McDermott, Monika L. (2006): Not for Members Only. Group Endorsements as Electoral Information Cues. In: Political Research Quarterly 59, 249–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. McGraw, Kathleen M./Lodge, Milton/Stroh, Patrick (1990): On-Line Processing in Candidate Evaluation. The Effects of Issue Order, Issue Importance, and Sophistication. In: Political Behavior 12, 41–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. McGraw, Kathleen M./Pinney, Neil (1990): The Effects of General and Domain-specific Expertise on Political Memory and Judgment. In: Social Cognition 8, 9–30.Google Scholar
  77. McGraw, Kathleen M./Steenbergen, Marco R. (1995): Pictures in the Head. Memory Representations of Political Candidates. In: Lodge, Milton/McGraw, Kathleen M. (Hrsg.) (1995): Political Judgment. Structure and Process. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
  78. Meffert, Michael/Guge, Michael/Lodge, Milton (2003): The Good, the Bad, and the Ambivalent. In: Sniderman, Paul/Saris, Willem (Hrsg.) (2003): Studies in Public Opinion. Gauging Attitudes, Nonattitudes, and Measurement Error. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
  79. Miller, Arthur H./Wattenberg, Martin P./Malanchuk, Oksana (1986): Schematic Assessments of Presidential Candidates. In: American Political Science Review 80, 521–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Mondak, Jeffery (1993): Source Cues and Policy Approval. The Cognitive Dynamics of Public Support for the Reagan Agenda. In: American Journal of Political Science 37, 186–212.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Morgan, Rick/Heise, David R. (1988): Structure of Emotions. In: Social Psychology Quarterly 51, 19–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Morris, James P./Squires, Nancy K./Taber, Charles S./Lodge, Milton (2003): Activation of Political Attitudes. A Psychophysiological Examination of the Hot Cognition Hypothesis. In: Political Psychology 24, 727–745.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Moskowitz, Gordon B./Skurnik, Ian/Galinsky, Adam D. (1999): The History of Dual-Process Notions, and the Future of Preconscious Control. In: Chaiken, Shelly/Trope, Yaacov (Hrsg.) (1999): Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  84. Nabi, Robin L. (2003): “Feeling” Resistance. Exploring the Role of Emotionally Evocative Visuals in Inducing Inoculation. In: Media Psychology 5, 199–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Natchez, Peter B. (1984): Images of Voting/Visions of Democracy. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
  86. Nelson, John S./Boynton, G. R. (1997): Video Rhetorics. Televised Advertising in American Politics. Chicago: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
  87. Ottati, Victor C./Wyer, Robert S. (1990): The Cognitive Mediators of Political Choice. Toward a Comprehensive Model of Political Information Processing. In: Ferejohn, John A./Kuklinski, James H. (Hrsg.) (1990): Information and Democratic Processes. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
  88. Ottati, Victor C. (1990): Determinants of Political Judgments. The Joint Influence of Normative and Heuristic Rules of Inference. In: Political Behavior 12, 159–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Ottati, Victor C./Steenbergen, Marco R./Riggle, Ellen (1992): The Cognitive and Affective Components of Political Attitudes. Measuring the Determinants of Candidate Evaluations. In: Political Behavior 14, 423–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Petty, Richard. E./Wegener, Duane T. (1999): The Elaboration Likelihood Model. Current Status and Controversies. In: Chaiken, Shelly/Trope, Yaacov (Hrsg.) (1999): Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
  91. Phelps, Elizabeth A./Thomas, Laura A. (2003): Race, Behavior, and the Brain. The Role of Neuroimaging in Understanding Complex Social Behaviors. In: Political Psychology 24, 747–758.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Ragsdale, Lyn (1991): Strong Feelings. Emotional Responses to Presidents. In: Political Behavior 13, 33–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Rahn, Wendy M. (1993): The Role of Partisan Stereotypes in Information Processing about Political Candidates. In: American Journal of Political Science 37, 472–496.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Rahn, Wendy M. (1995): Candidate Evaluation in Complex Information Environments. Cognitive Organization and Comparison Process. In: Lodge, Milton/McGraw, Kathleen M. (Hrsg.) (1995): Political Judgment. Structure and Process. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
  95. Rahn, Wendy M./Aldrich, John H./Borgida, Eugene/Sullivan, John L. (1990): A Social-cognitive Model of Candidate Appraisal. In: Ferejohn, John A./Kuklinski, James H. (Hrsg.) (1990): Information and Democratic Processes. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
  96. Rahn, Wendy M./Aldrich, John H./Borgida, Eugene (1994): Individual and Contextual Variations in Political Candidate Appraisal. In: The American Political Science Review 88, 193–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Rosenberg, Shawn W. (1988): Reason, Ideology, and Politics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
  98. Rubin, Donald B. (1974): Estimating Causal Effects of Treatments in Randomized and Nonrandomized Studies. In: Journal of Educational Psychology 66, 688–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Schwarz, Norbert/Clore, Gerald (1988): How Do I Feel About It? Informative Functions of Affective States. In: Fiedler, Klaus/Forgas, Joseph (Hrsg.) (1988): Affect, Cognition, and Social Behavior. Toronto: Hofgrefe International.Google Scholar
  100. Sharp, Carol/Lodge, Milton (1985): Partisan and Ideological Belief Systems. Do They Differ? In: Political Behavior 7, 147–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. Simon, Herbert A. (1955): A Behavioral Model of Rational Choice. In: Quarterly Journal of Economics 69, 99–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. Sniderman, Paul M./Brody, Richard A./Tetlock, Philip E. (1991): Reasoning and Choice. Explorations in Political Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  103. Sniderman, Paul M./Hagen, Michael G./Tetlock, Philip E./Brady, Henry E. (1986): Reasoning Chains. Causal Models of Policy Reasoning in Mass Publics. In: British Journal of Political Science 16, 405–430.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. Steenbergen, Marco R./Ellis, Chris (2006): Fear and Loathing in American Elections. Context, Traits, and Negative Candidate Affect. In: Redlawsk, David P. (Hrsg.) (2006): Feeling Politics. Emotion in Political Information Processing. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
  105. Steenbergen, Marco R./Lodge, Milton (2003): Process Matters. Cognitive Models of Candidate Evaluation. In: MacKuen, Michael B./Rabinowitz, George (Hrsg.) (2003): Electoral Democracy. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
  106. Stone, William F./Schaffner, Paul E. (1988): The psychology of politics. 2. Auflage. New York: Springer-Verlag.Google Scholar
  107. Sweeney, Paul D./Gruber, Kathy L. (1984): Selective Exposure. Voter Information Preferences and the Watergate Affair. In: Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 46, 1208–1221.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. Taber, Charles S./Lodge, Milton (2006): Motivated Scepticism in the Evaluation of Political Beliefs. In: American Journal of Political Science 50, 755–769.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. Taber, Charles S./Steenbergen, Marco R. (1995): Computational Experiments in Electoral Behavior. In: Lodge, Milton/McGraw, Kathleen M. (Hrsg.) (1995): Political Judgment. Structure and Process. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
  110. Valentino, Nicholas A./Hutchings, Vincent L./Banks, Antoine J./Davis, Anne K. (2008): Is a Worried Citizen a Good Citizen? Emotions, Political Information Seeking, and Learning via the Internet. In: Political Psychology 29, 247–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. Watson, David/Tellegen, Auke (1985): Toward a Consensual Structure of Mood. In: Psychological Bulletin 98, 219–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. Wyer, Robert S./Ottati, Victor C. (1993): Political Information Processing. In: Iyengar, Shanto/McGuire, William J. (Hrsg.) (1993): Explorations in Political Psychology. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
  113. Zaller, John R. (1991): Information, Values, and Opinion. In: The American Political Science Review 85, 1215–1237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. Zaller, John R. (1992): The Nature and Origin of Mass Opinion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften | Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH 2010

Authors and Affiliations

  • Marco R. Steenbergen
    • 1
  1. 1.Universität BernBern

Personalised recommendations