Will the Ark Sink? Captive Wildlife, Tourism and the Human Relationship to Nature: Demystifying Zoos
Abstract
Apart from displaying many facets of the ambiguous relationship of humans and animals, zoos and aquariums are also a significant part of the tourism industry. Their supposed goals are visitor education, visitor entertainment, species conservation and behavioural animal research. It seems therefore reasonable to describe those institutions as an ark for endangered species. However, the role of zoos in modern societies is more and more called into question. Their main purpose is described as visitor entertainment (to create economic benefits) covered up by conservation, education and research claims. Arguably, some would like to see their demise, while others propose changes that include an alternative, but more sustainable version of zoos and aquariums: wildlife parks and wildlife sanctuaries that focus on the well-being of the animals.
Keywords
Zoo Captive wildlife EthicsReferences
- Altick RD (1978) The shows of London. Belknap Press, LondonGoogle Scholar
- Beardsworth A, Bryman A (2001) The wild animal in late modernity: the case of the Disneyization of zoos. Tourist Studies 1(1):83–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Boehrer B (2007) Introduction: The animal renaissance. In: Boehrer B (ed) A cultural history of animals in the renaissance. Berg, Oxford, pp 1–26Google Scholar
- Bostock SC (1993) Zoos and animal rights: the ethics of keeping animals. Routledge, LondonCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bundezentrale für politische Bildung (2011) Globalisierung. Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung, BonnGoogle Scholar
- Captive Animals Protection Society (CAPS) (2013) Noah’s Ark Zoo Farm does business with (another) notorious circus trainer. http://www.captiveanimals.org/news/2013/06/noahs-ark-zoo-farm-does-business-with-another-notorious-circus-trainer. Accessed 10 Sept 2016
- Casamitjana J (2004) Aquatic zoos: a critical study of UK public aquaria in the year 2004. The Captive Animals Protection Society, LondonGoogle Scholar
- Chrismom (2015) Was meinen sie welche Tiere darf der Mensch töten? www.chrismon.de/umfragen. Accessed 08 July 2015
- Clayton JB, Vangay P, Huang H et al (2016) Captivity humanizes the primate microbine. PNAS 113(37). http://www.pnas.org/content/113/37/10376.full.pdf. Accessed 28 Sept 2016
- Cohen E (2009) The wild and the humanized: animals in Thai tourism. Anatolia 20(1):100–118CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cohen E (2015) Young elephants in Thai tourism. In: Markwell K (ed) Animals and tourism: understanding diverse relationships. Channel View, Bristol, pp 163–179Google Scholar
- Cunningham A (2016) The case for zoos. A scientist perspective. Zoological Society of London (ZSL). https://www.zsl.org/blogs/wild-science/the-case-for-zoos-a-scientists-perspective. Accessed 28 Sept 2016
- Dejure.org (2016) Bundesnaturschutzgesetz §42 Zoos. https://dejure.org/gesetze/BNatSchG/42.html. Accessed 12 July 2016
- Die Zeit (2014a) Die Ethik des Schinkenbrots. http://www.zeit.de/2014/21/tierrechte-nutztiere-fleisch-essen/komplettansicht. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Die Zeit (2014b) Ich bin wie du. Die Tierzählung. 15.04.2014. Vol. 21: 38Google Scholar
- Die Zeit (2015) Wir und das Tier. Was Zeit Leser an Landwirtschaft, Tierversuchen und Zoos kritisieren, vol 51, p 44. 17 Dec 2015Google Scholar
- Dobson J (2015) Zoo. In: Cater C, Garrod B, Low T (eds) The encyclopedia of sustainable tourism. CABI, Wallingford, p 554Google Scholar
- Donaldson S, Kymlicka W (2013) ZooPolis. Eine politische Theorie der Tierrechte. Suhrkamp Verlag, BerlinGoogle Scholar
- Eilenberger W (2012) Wie viel Tier steckt in mir? In: Philosophie Magazin, vol 6, Oct./Nov. 2012Google Scholar
- Elsevier (2016) Der Zoologische Garten. http://www.journals.elsevier.com:80/der-zoologische-garten. Accessed 23 Sept 2016
- Fennell DA (2012) Tourism and animal ethics. Routledge, New YorkGoogle Scholar
- Frost W (2011) Rethinking zoos and tourism. In: Frost W (ed) Zoos and tourism: conservation, education, entertainment?. Channel View, Bristol, pp 1–12Google Scholar
- Gannon F (2002) Animals on the menu. European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) reports 3(7):589Google Scholar
- Ganzert R (2016) Zoos are not prisons. They improve the lives of animals. http://time.com/4364671/zoos-improve-lives-of-animals/. Accessed 28 Sept 2016
- Garrett EA (2014) Why do we go to the zoo?. Communication, animals, and the cultural-historical experience of zoos. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, MadisonGoogle Scholar
- Gatland A (1996) Zoos: the conservation myth. Animals Today 3(4). http://www.wildlife.org.nz/zoocheck/myths.htm. Accessed on 07 Nov 2015
- Geo (2013) Was sie wirklich über Tiere wissen sollten. Geo Magazin 04/13Google Scholar
- Goldner C (2014) Zoos manipulieren Besucherzahlen. Humanistischer Pressedienst. http://hpd.de/artikel/10124. Accessed 11 July 2016
- Goldner C (2015) Lebenslänglich hinter Gittern: Die Wahrheit über Gorilla. Orang Utan & Co in deutschen Zoos, Alibri, AschaffenburgGoogle Scholar
- Graham N (2015) Conservation education in zoos and aquariums. The benefits of these institutions and their impact on conservation ethic according to staff. Research paper submitted for the Master of Teaching at the University of Toronto. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/68682/1/Graham_Nathalie_LM_201506_MT_MTRP.pdf. Accessed 27 Sept 2016
- Grayal A (2013) Zoos as ecotourism experiences. In: Ballantyne R, Packer J (eds) International handbook of ecotourism. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp 464–469Google Scholar
- Great Ape Project (2012) Menschenaffenkarte. http://www.nationalgeographic.de/static/images/evt-07-2012/menschenaffen-karte-1200.jpg. Accessed 14 July 2016
- Hachmeister P (2014) Gefängnis oder Arche? Zur medialen Darstellung der Institution Zoo in Deutschland. Lit Verlag, MünsterGoogle Scholar
- Hamilton Zoo (2015) Conservation. http://hamiltonzoo.co.nz/conservation/. Accessed 09 Nov 2015
- Hancocks D (2001) A different nature: The paradoxical world of zoos and their uncertain future. University of California Press, BerkleyGoogle Scholar
- Haufe A (2013) Die Geschichte des Zoos- was bisher geschah. http://www.ndr.de/ratgeber/reise/tierparks/Die-Geschichte-des-Zoos-was-bisher-geschah,zoofeier100.html. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Holmes O, Vidal J (2016) Fourty dead tiger cubs found in freezer at Thai temple. The Guardian. 01 June 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jun/01/40-dead-tiger-cubs-found-in-freezer-thai-temple-wildlife-trafficking. Accessed 10 Sept 2016
- Hucklenbroich C (2015) Tiergärten im Wandel der Zeit. Und jeden Nachmittag ins Paradies. Frankfurter Allgemeine Feuilleton. 27 Apr 2015. http://www.faz.net/gqz82ixx. Accessed 11 July 2016
- Hunter-Jones P, Hayward C (1998) Leisure consumption and the United Kingdom zoo. In: Ravenscroft N, Philip D, Bennett N (eds) Leisure. Culture and commerce, LSA, Brighton, pp 97–107Google Scholar
- ITN (2012) Penguin eats young in Chinese zoo [video clip]. In: The guardian. 20 Dec 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/science/video/2012/dec/20/penguin-eats-young-china-zoo-video. Accessed 03 April 2017
- Jamieson D (1985) Against Zoos. In: Singer P (ed) In defence of animals. Blackwell, Oxford, pp 108–117Google Scholar
- Jamieson D (2006) Against Zoos. In: Singer P (ed) In defense of animals: the second wave. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA, pp 132–143 Google Scholar
- Lieckfeld A (2012) Wie Tiere denken. In: Geo Kompakt 33:138–144Google Scholar
- Lovelock B, Lovelock KM (2013) The ethics of tourism: critical and applied perspectives. Routledge, Milton ParkGoogle Scholar
- Marino L, Bradshaw G, Malamud R (2009) The captivity industry: the reality of zoos and aquariums. Best Friends Magazine March/April:25–27Google Scholar
- Marino L, Lilienfeld SO, Malamud R et al (2010) Do zoos and aquariums promote attitude change in visitors? A critical evaluation of the American zoo and aquarium study. Soc Anim 18(2):126–138CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Marxwell K (2015) Birds, beasts and tourists: human-animal relationships in tourism. In: Markwell K (ed) Animals and tourism: understanding diverse relationships. Channel View, Bristol, pp 1–23Google Scholar
- Mason P (2000) Zoo tourism: the need for more research. J Sustain Tourism 8(4):333–339CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mazur N (2001) After the ark? Environmental policy making and the zoo. Melbourne University Press, MelbourneGoogle Scholar
- Miller I (2005) Didactic nature: exhibiting nation and empire at the Ueno Zoological Gardens. In: Pflugfelder G, Walker B (eds) JAPANimals: history and culture in Japan’s animal life. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, pp 273–313Google Scholar
- Minteer BA, Collins JP (2013) Ecological ethics in captivity: balancing values and responsibilities in zoo and aquarium research under rapid global change. Inst Lab Anim Res (ILAR) 54(1):41–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Morgenthaler K (2013) Das forsche Fräulein und der König. Greenpeace Magazin, Tier&Wir: Wie die Menschen mit Haustieren und Wildtieren umgehen 4(13)Google Scholar
- Mount H (2016) Is it time to close our zoos? The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/tv/2016/04/17/is-it-time-to-close-our-zoos/. Accessed 28 Sept 2016
- National Zoo and Aquarium (2015) Education. http://www.nationalzoo.com.au/education.htm. Accessed on 09 Nov 2015
- Packer J, Ballantyne R (2010) The role of zoos and aquariums in education for a sustainable future. New Dir Adult Continuing Educ 127:25–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Parks C (2015) The World’s oldest zoo is a modern attraction with a storied past. The Austrian destination has a lot more to offer than exotic animals. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/zoo-endured-inside-worlds-oldest-zoo-180957191/?no-ist. Accessed 28 Sept 2016
- Palmer J (2015) The last truly wild horse is making a comeback, BBC Erath. 11 Nov 2015, http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20151111-the-worlds-last-truly-wild-horse-is-making-acomeback. Accessed 12 Aug 2016
- Patrick PG, Tunnicliffe SD (2013) Zoo talk. Springer Verlag, DordrechtCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Patterson C (2002) Eternal Treblinka: our treatment of animals and the Holocaust. Lantern Books, New YorkGoogle Scholar
- People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) (2016) Pseudo-sanctuaries. http://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/zoos-pseudo-sanctuaries/pseudo-sanctuaries/. Accessed 10 Sept 2016
- Press Trust of India (2016) Study on brow antlered deer at Delhi zoo. Business Standard. http://www.business-standard.com/article/pti-stories/study-on-brow-antlered-deer-at-delhi-zoo-116090400131_1.html. Accessed 29 Sept 2016
- Reichenbach H (2002) Lost menageries—why and how zoos disappear. Part I. Int Zoo News 49(3). http://www.izn.org.uk/Archive/316/Izn-316.htm. Accessed 27 Sept 2016
- Reneau R (2016) Zoo animals do not belong in captivity. The University Star. https://star.txstate.edu/2016/09/20/zoo-animals-do-not-belong-in-captivity/. Accessed 23 Sept 2016
- Snyder RL (1974) Introduction. In: Centennial symposium on science and research, Philadelphia Zoo, pp 1–3Google Scholar
- Sommer R (1972) What do we learn at the zoo? Nat Hist 81:26–29Google Scholar
- Sommer V (2012) Tierethik. In: Geo Kompakt, vol 33, pp 138–144Google Scholar
- Statista (2016a) Ranking der größten Zoos in Deutschland nach Zahl der Tiere im Jahr 2014. http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/314716/umfrage/groesste-zoos-in-deutschalnd-nach-anzahl-der-tiere/. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Statista (2016b) Ranking der größten Zoos in Deutschland nach Anzahl der Besucher im Jahr 2014. http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/248643/umfrage/ranking-deutscher-zoos-nach-besucherzahl/. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Statista (2016c) Zustimmung zu Aussagen zur Tierhaltung in Zoos in Deutschland. http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/316077/umfrage/zustimmung-zu-aussagen-zur-tierhaltung-in-zoos-in-deutschland/. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Statista (2016d) Umfrage in Deutschland zur Häufigkeit des Besuchs von Zoos und Tierparks bis 2015. http://de.statista.com/statistik/daten/studie/290972/umfrage/umfrage-in-deutschland-zur-haeufigkeit-des-besuchs-von-zoos-und-tierparks/. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Stevens PMC, McAlister E (2003) Ethics in Zoos. Int Zoo Yearb 38(1):94–101Google Scholar
- The Born Free Foundation (2012) The EU zoo enquiry 2011. Born Free Foundation, HorshamGoogle Scholar
- Tierschutz.org (2016) Zoo. http://www.tierschutz.org/tierschutz/problembereiche/wildtiere/zoo.php. Accessed 01 May 2016
- Tisdale S (1993) London zoo review. American Way 1:74–76Google Scholar
- Tribe A (2004) Zoo tourism. In: Higginbottom K (ed) Wildlife tourism: impacts, management and planning. Common Ground Publishing, VictoriaGoogle Scholar
- Van Tuye C (2008) Zoos and animal welfare. Gale Cengage Learning, Farmington HillsGoogle Scholar
- Verband der Zoologischen Gärten (VdZ) (2016a) Zoo. http://www.zoodirektoren.de/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=904:zoo&Itemid=216. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Verband der Zoologischen Gärten (VdZ) (2016b) Zoogründungen im 19.Jahrhundert. http://www.zoodirektoren.de/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=4717:zoogruendungen-19-jahrhundert&Itemid=339. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Verband der Zoologischen Gärten (VdZ) (2016c) VdZ Faktenblatt. http://www.zoodirektoren.de/images/Wir_ueber_uns/VdZ_Faktenblatt.pdf. Accessed 13 July 2016
- Verband der Zoologischen Gärten (VdZ) (2016d) Fragen und Antworten zu Zoos im deutschsprachigen Raum. http://www.zoodirektoren.de. Accessed 14 July 2016
- Ward S (2016) In defence of zoos: how captivity helps conservation. The conversation. https://theconversation.com/in-defence-of-zoos-how-captivity-helps-conservation-56719. Accessed 29 Sept 2016
- Webster Dictionary (2015) Zoo. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/zoo. Accessed 28 Oct 2015
- World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) (2015) Zoos and aquariums around the world. http://www.waza.org/en/site/zoos-aquariums. Accessed 23 Sept 2016
- World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (WAZA) (2016) Science and research. http://www.waza.org/en/site/conservation/science-and-research. Accessed 23 Sept 2016
- World Society for the Protection of Animals and Born Free Foundation (1994) The Zoo enquiry. World Society for the Protection of Animals, OxfordGoogle Scholar
- Yougov (2016) Case study: Pet Owners. Aktuelle Umfrageergebnisse auf der Basis des Omnibus PetOwner. https://yougov.de/loesungen/infocenter/white-paper/case-study-petowner/. Accessed 14 July 2016
- Zoo-infos.de (2016) Die Zoo-Datenbank für Deutschland. http://www.zoo-infos.de/. Accessed 18 Aug 2016