Autoimmune and Connective Tissue Disease in Skin of Color

  • Babu Singh
  • Scott Walter
  • Daniel J. CallaghanIII.
  • Jennifer Paek
  • Christina Lam
Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

The manifestations of autoimmune and connective tissue disease in skin of color populations is multifaceted and unique. Incidence of diseases, such as lupus, morphea, scleroderma, dermatomyositis, and sarcoidosis in ethnic populations has been show to differ in several ways from their Caucasian counterparts. Furthermore, in ethnic groups, disease burden at presentation, severity of disease, prognosis, and disease-specific mortality have been shown to differ between ethnicities, as well when compared to Caucasian populations.

Keywords

Lupus Dermatomyositis Morphea Scleroderma Systemic sclerosis Sarcoidosis Autoimmune diseases in skin of color 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Durosaro O, et al. Incidence of cutaneous lupus erythematosus, 1965–2005: a population-based study. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(3):249–53.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Osio-Salido E, Manapat-Reyes H. Epidemiology of systemic lupus erythematosus in Asia. Lupus. 2010;19(12):1365–73.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Rees F, et al. The incidence and prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus in the UK, 1999–2012. Ann Rheum Dis. 2016;75(1):136–41.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Flower C, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in an African Caribbean population: incidence, clinical manifestations, and survival in the Barbados National Lupus Registry. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2012;64(8):1151–8.Google Scholar
  5. 5.
    Borba EF, et al. Clinical and immunological features of 888 Brazilian systemic lupus patients from a monocentric cohort: comparison with other populations. Lupus. 2013;22(7):744–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Castano-Rodriguez N, et al. Meta-analysis of HLA-DRB1 and HLA-DQB1 polymorphisms in Latin American patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun Rev. 2008;7(4):322–30.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Alarcon GS, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in three ethnic groups: II. Features predictive of disease activity early in its course. LUMINA Study Group. Lupus in minority populations, nature versus nurture. Arthritis Rheum. 1998;41(7):1173–80.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Molineros JE, et al. Admixture in Hispanic Americans: its impact on ITGAM association and implications for admixture mapping in SLE. Genes Immun. 2009;10(5):539–45.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Lee YH, Ji JD, Song GG. Fcgamma receptor IIB and IIIB polymorphisms and susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis: a meta-analysis. Lupus. 2009;18(8):727–34.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Yuan H, et al. Meta analysis on the association between FcgammaRIIa-R/H131 polymorphisms and systemic lupus erythematosus. Mol Biol Rep. 2009;36(5):1053–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Li LH, et al. Role of the Fcgamma receptor IIIA-V/F158 polymorphism in susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus nephritis: a meta-analysis. Scand J Rheumatol. 2010;39(2):148–54.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Chai HC, et al. Insight into gene polymorphisms involved in toll-like receptor/interferon signalling pathways for systemic lupus erythematosus in South East Asia. J Immunol Res. 2014;2014:529167.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Katkam SK, et al. Association of CTLA4 exon-1 polymorphism with the tumor necrosis factor-alpha in the risk of systemic lupus erythematosus among South Indians. Hum Immunol. 2016;77(2):158–64.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Chua KH, et al. Association between PDCD1 gene polymorphisms and risk of systemic lupus erythematosus in three main ethnic groups of the Malaysian population. Int J Mol Sci. 2015;16(5):9794–803.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Hochberg MC. Updating the American College of Rheumatology revised criteria for the classification of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40(9):1725.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Petit A, Dadzie OE. Multisystemic diseases and ethnicity: a focus on lupus erythematosus, systemic sclerosis, sarcoidosis and Behcet disease. Br J Dermatol. 2013;169(Suppl 3):1–10.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Fabbri P, et al. Cutaneous lupus erythematosus: diagnosis and management. Am J Clin Dermatol. 2003;4(7):449–65.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Tebbe B, et al. Markers in cutaneous lupus erythematosus indicating systemic involvement. A multicenter study on 296 patients. Acta Derm Venereol. 1997;77(4):305–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Deng JS, Sontheimer RD, Gilliam JN. Relationships between antinuclear and anti-Ro/SS-A antibodies in subacute cutaneous lupus erythematosus. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1984;11(3):494–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Kuhn A, Landmann A. The classification and diagnosis of cutaneous lupus erythematosus. J Autoimmun. 2014;48–49:14–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Arrico L, et al. Ocular complications in cutaneous lupus erythematosus: a systematic review with a meta-analysis of reported cases. J Ophthalmol. 2015;2015:254260.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Wollina U, et al. Lupus erythematosus-associated red lunula. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1999;41(3 Pt 1):419–21.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Al-Refu K, Goodfield M. Hair follicle stem cells in the pathogenesis of the scarring process in cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun Rev. 2009;8(6):474–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Fernandes MS, et al. Discoid lupus erythematosus with squamous cell carcinoma: a case report and review of the literature in Indian patients. Lupus. 2015;24(14):1562–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Keith WD, et al. Squamous cell carcinoma arising in lesions of discoid lupus erythematosus in black persons. Arch Dermatol. 1980;116(3):315–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Baltaci M, Fritsch P. Histologic features of cutaneous lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun Rev. 2009;8(6):467–73.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Harrist TJ, Mihm MC Jr. The specificity and clinical usefulness of the lupus band test. Arthritis Rheum. 1980;23(4):479–90.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Cozzani E, et al. Serology of lupus erythematosus: correlation between immunopathological features and clinical aspects. Autoimmune Dis. 2014;2014:321359.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Jakes RW, et al. Systematic review of the epidemiology of systemic lupus erythematosus in the Asia-Pacific region: prevalence, incidence, clinical features, and mortality. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken). 2012;64(2):159–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Serdula MK, Rhoads GG. Frequency of systemic lupus erythematosus in different ethnic groups in Hawaii. Arthritis Rheum. 1979;22(4):328–33.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Hopkinson ND, Doherty M, Powell RJ. Clinical features and race-specific incidence/prevalence rates of systemic lupus erythematosus in a geographically complete cohort of patients. Ann Rheum Dis. 1994;53(10):675–80.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Samanta A, et al. High prevalence of systemic disease and mortality in Asian subjects with systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis. 1991;50(7):490–2.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Deligny C, et al. Pure cutaneous lupus erythematosus in a population of African descent in French Guiana: a retrospective population-based description. Lupus. 2012;21(13):1467–71.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Molokhia M, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in migrants from west Africa compared with Afro-Caribbean people in the UK. Lancet. 2001;357(9266):1414–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Bajaj DR, Devrajani BR, Matlani BL. Discoid lupus erythematosus: a profile. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak. 2010;20(6):361–4.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Johnson SR, et al. Ethnic variation in disease patterns and health outcomes in systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 2006;33(10):1990–5.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Stoll T, Seifert B, Isenberg DA. SLICC/ACR damage index is valid, and renal and pulmonary organ scores are predictors of severe outcome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Br J Rheumatol. 1996;35(3):248–54.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Patel M, et al. The prevalence and incidence of biopsy-proven lupus nephritis in the UK: evidence of an ethnic gradient. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(9):2963–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Alarcon GS, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus in three ethnic groups: III. A comparison of characteristics early in the natural history of the LUMINA cohort. Lupus in minority populations: nature vs. nurture. Lupus. 1999;8(3):197–209.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Pons-Estel BA, et al. The GLADEL multinational Latin American prospective inception cohort of 1214 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: ethnic and disease heterogeneity among “Hispanics”. Medicine (Baltimore). 2004;83(1):1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Tan TC, et al. Differences between male and female systemic lupus erythematosus in a multiethnic population. J Rheumatol. 2012;39(4):759–69.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Scalzi LV, Hollenbeak CS, Wang L. Racial disparities in age at time of cardiovascular events and cardiovascular-related death in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 2010;62(9):2767–75.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Wadee S, Tikly M, Hopley M. Causes and predictors of death in South Africans with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2007;46(9):1487–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Gómez-Puerta JA, Barbhaiya M, Guan H, Feldman CH, Alarcón GS, Costenbader KH. Racial/Ethnic variation in all-cause mortality among United States medicaid recipients with systemic lupus erythematosus: a Hispanic and asian paradox. Arthrit Rheumatol. 2015;67(3):752–60.Google Scholar
  45. 45.
    Wang Z, et al. Long-term survival and death causes of systemic lupus erythematosus in China: a systemic review of observational studies. Medicine (Baltimore). 2015;94(17):e794.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Reveille JD, Bartolucci A, Alarcon GS. Prognosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Negative impact of increasing age at onset, black race, and thrombocytopenia, as well as causes of death. Arthritis Rheum. 1990;33(1):37–48.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Korbet SM, et al. Severe lupus nephritis: racial differences in presentation and outcome. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2007;18(1):244–54.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Kaslow RA. High rate of death caused by systemic lupus erythematosus among U. S. residents of Asian descent. Arthritis Rheum. 1982;25(4):414–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Agbai ON, et al. Skin cancer and photoprotection in people of color: a review and recommendations for physicians and the public. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2014;70(4):748–62.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Kovacs SO, Kovacs SC. Dermatomyositis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1998;39(6):899–920; quiz 921–2.Google Scholar
  51. 51.
    Marmor MF, et al. Recommendations on screening for chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine retinopathy (2016 revision). Ophthalmology. 2016;123(6):1386–94.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Pons-Estel GJ, et al. Lupus in Latin-American patients: lessons from the GLADEL cohort. Lupus. 2015;24(6):536–45.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Isenberg D, et al. Influence of race/ethnicity on response to lupus nephritis treatment: the ALMS study. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2010;49(1):128–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Arnett FC, et al. Familial occurrence frequencies and relative risks for systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) in three United States cohorts. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44(6):1359–62.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Mayes MD, et al. Prevalence, incidence, survival, and disease characteristics of systemic sclerosis in a large US population. Arthritis Rheum. 2003;48(8):2246–55.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Laing TJ, et al. Racial differences in scleroderma among women in Michigan. Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40(4):734–42.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Steen V, et al. A clinical and serologic comparison of African American and Caucasian patients with systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 2012;64(9):2986–94.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Steen VD, et al. Incidence of systemic sclerosis in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. A twenty-year study of hospital-diagnosed cases, 1963–1982. Arthritis Rheum. 1997;40(3):441–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Arnett FC, et al. Increased prevalence of systemic sclerosis in a Native American tribe in Oklahoma. Association with an Amerindian HLA haplotype. Arthritis Rheum. 1996;39(8):1362–70.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Gabrielli A, Avvedimento EV, Krieg T. Scleroderma. N Engl J Med. 2009;360(19):1989–2003.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Falanga V, Zhou L, Yufit T. Low oxygen tension stimulates collagen synthesis and COL1A1 transcription through the action of TGF-beta1. J Cell Physiol. 2002;191(1):42–50.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Silver RM, et al. Racial differences between blacks and whites with systemic sclerosis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2012;24(6):642–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    He D, et al. Association of the HLA-DRB1 with scleroderma in Chinese population. PLoS ONE. 2014;9(9):e106939.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Tikly M, et al. Human leukocyte antigen class II associations with systemic sclerosis in South Africans. Tissue Antigens. 2004;63(5):487–90.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Beretta L, et al. Analysis of class II human leucocyte antigens in Italian and Spanish systemic sclerosis. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2012;51(1):52–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Arnett FC, et al. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II alleles, haplotypes and epitopes which confer susceptibility or protection in systemic sclerosis: analyses in 1300 Caucasian, African-American and Hispanic cases and 1000 controls. Ann Rheum Dis. 2010;69(5):822–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Pope JE, Johnson SR. New classification criteria for systemic sclerosis (scleroderma). Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 2015;41(3):383–98.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Bolognia JL. Dermatology, vol. 3, 3rd ed. Elsevier/Saunders; 2012.Google Scholar
  69. 69.
    Schinke S, Riemekasten G. Systemic sclerosis. Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 2016;141(8):550–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Reveille JD, et al. Systemic sclerosis in 3 US ethnic groups: a comparison of clinical, sociodemographic, serologic, and immunogenetic determinants. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2001;30(5):332–46.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Dadzie OE. Ushering in a new era for studying human cutaneous diversity. Br J Dermatol. 2013;169 Suppl 3:iii–iv.Google Scholar
  72. 72.
    Grassi W, et al. Microvascular involvement in systemic sclerosis: capillaroscopic findings. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2001;30(6):397–402.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Allanore Y, Simms R, Distler O, Trojanowska M, Pope J, Denton CP, Varga J. Systemic sclerosis. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2015;1:15053.Google Scholar
  74. 74.
    Shah AA, Wigley FM. My approach to the treatment of scleroderma. Mayo Clin Proc. 2013;88(4):377–93.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Mendoza F, Derk CT. Systemic sclerosis mortality in the United States: 1999–2002 implications for patient care. J Clin Rheumatol. 2007;13(4):187–92.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Nietert PJ, et al. Demographic and clinical factors associated with in-hospital death among patients with systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol. 2005;32(10):1888–92.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Nietert PJ, et al. Racial variation in clinical and immunological manifestations of systemic sclerosis. J Rheumatol. 2006;33(2):263–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Persa OD, Moinzadeh P, Hunzelmann N. Systemic sclerosis. Current classification and diagnosis of organ involvement. Hautarzt. 2015;66(8):599–603.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Gladue H, et al. Screening and diagnostic modalities for connective tissue disease-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension: a systematic review. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2014;43(4):536–41.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Mayes MD, et al. Minocycline is not effective in systemic sclerosis: results of an open-label multicenter trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50(2):553–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Pope JE, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of methotrexate versus placebo in early diffuse scleroderma. Arthritis Rheum. 2001;44(6):1351–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Kreuter A, Gambichler T. UV-A1 phototherapy for sclerotic skin diseases: implications for optimizing patient selection and management. Arch Dermatol. 2008;144(7):912–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Chatterjee S. Management of Raynaud’s phenomenon in the patient with connective tissue disease. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2010;12(2):185–204.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Emmanuel A. Current management of the gastrointestinal complications of systemic sclerosis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2016;13(8):461–72.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Iaccarino L, et al. The clinical features, diagnosis and classification of dermatomyositis. J Autoimmun. 2014;48–49:122–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Hochberg MC. Epidemiology of polymyositis/dermatomyositis. Mt Sinai J Med. 1988;55(6):447–52.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Oddis CV, et al. Incidence of polymyositis-dermatomyositis: a 20-year study of hospital diagnosed cases in Allegheny County, PA 1963–1982. J Rheumatol. 1990;17(10):1329–34.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Reed AM, Stirling JD. Association of the HLA-DQA1*0501 allele in multiple racial groups with juvenile dermatomyositis. Hum Immunol. 1995;44(3):131–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Bolognia JL, Jorizzo JL, Schaffer JV. Dermatology, vol. 1, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2012.Google Scholar
  90. 90.
    Casciola-Rosen L, Mammen AL. Myositis autoantibodies. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2012;24(6):602–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Fujimoto M, et al. Recent advances in dermatomyositis-specific autoantibodies. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2016;28(6):636–44.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Fiorentino D, et al. The mucocutaneous and systemic phenotype of dermatomyositis patients with antibodies to MDA5 (CADM-140): a retrospective study. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;65(1):25–34.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Trallero-Araguas E, et al. Usefulness of anti-p155 autoantibody for diagnosing cancer-associated dermatomyositis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Rheum. 2012;64(2):523–32.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Fiorentino DF, et al. Most patients with cancer-associated dermatomyositis have antibodies to nuclear matrix protein NXP-2 or transcription intermediary factor 1gamma. Arthritis Rheum. 2013;65(11):2954–62.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Satoh M, et al. Frequent coexistence of anti-topoisomerase I and anti-U1RNP autoantibodies in African American patients associated with mild skin involvement: a retrospective clinical study. Arthritis Res Ther. 2011;13(3):R73.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    O’Hanlon TP, et al. HLA polymorphisms in African Americans with idiopathic inflammatory myopathy: allelic profiles distinguish patients with different clinical phenotypes and myositis autoantibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54(11):3670–81.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Bohan A, Peter JB. Polymyositis and dermatomyositis (first of two parts). N Engl J Med. 1975;292(7):344–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Bohan A, Peter JB. Polymyositis and dermatomyositis (second of two parts). N Engl J Med. 1975;292(8):403–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Dalakas MC, Hohlfeld R. Polymyositis and dermatomyositis. Lancet. 2003;362(9388):971–82.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Hoogendijk JE, et al. 119th ENMC international workshop: trial design in adult idiopathic inflammatory myopathies, with the exception of inclusion body myositis, 10–12 October 2003, Naarden, The Netherlands. Neuromuscul Disord. 2004;14(5):337–45.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Medsger TA Jr, Dawson WN, Masi AT Jr. The epidemiology of polymyositis. Am J Med. 1970;48(6):715–23.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Callen JP. Cutaneous manifestations of dermatomyositis and their management. Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2010;12(3):192–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Sontheimer RD. Would a new name hasten the acceptance of amyopathic dermatomyositis (dermatomyositis sine myositis) as a distinctive subset within the idiopathic inflammatory dermatomyopathies spectrum of clinical illness? J Am Acad Dermatol. 2002;46(4):626–36.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Dalakas MC. Inflammatory muscle diseases. N Engl J Med. 2015;372(18):1734–47.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Ee HL, Ng PP, Tan SH. Exacerbation of amyopathic dermatomyositis in orientals: a high alert for nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Australas J Dermatol. 2004;45(1):77–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Schwarz HA, et al. Muscle biopsy in polymyositis and dermatomyositis: a clinicopathological study. Ann Rheum Dis. 1980;39(5):500–7.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Iorizzo LJ 3rd, Jorizzo JL. The treatment and prognosis of dermatomyositis: an updated review. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;59(1):99–112.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Constantin T, et al. National registry of patients with juvenile idiopathic inflammatory myopathies in Hungary–clinical characteristics and disease course of 44 patients with juvenile dermatomyositis. Autoimmunity. 2006;39(3):223–32.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Huber AM, et al. Medium- and long-term functional outcomes in a multicenter cohort of children with juvenile dermatomyositis. Arthritis Rheum. 2000;43(3):541–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Drake LA, et al. Guidelines of care for dermatomyositis. American Academy of Dermatology. J Am Acad Dermatol. 1996;34(5 Pt 1):824–9.Google Scholar
  111. 111.
    Phillips BA, et al. Frequency of relapses in patients with polymyositis and dermatomyositis. Muscle Nerve. 1998;21(12):1668–72.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Kurtzman DJ, et al. Tofacitinib citrate for refractory cutaneous dermatomyositis: an alternative treatment. JAMA Dermatol. 2016;152(8):944–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Fett N, Werth VP. Update on morphea: part I. Epidemiology, clinical presentation, and pathogenesis. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;64(2):217–28; quiz 229–30.Google Scholar
  114. 114.
    Christen-Zaech S, et al. Pediatric morphea (localized scleroderma): review of 136 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2008;59(3):385–96.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Leitenberger JJ, et al. Distinct autoimmune syndromes in morphea: a review of 245 adult and pediatric cases. Arch Dermatol. 2009;145(5):545–50.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Peterson LS, et al. The epidemiology of morphea (localized scleroderma) in Olmsted County 1960–1993. J Rheumatol. 1997;24(1):73–80.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Pequet MS, et al. Risk factors for morphoea disease severity: a retrospective review of 114 paediatric patients. Br J Dermatol. 2014;170(4):895–900.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    Laxer RM, Zulian F. Localized scleroderma. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2006;18(6):606–13.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Tollefson MM, Witman PM. En coup de sabre morphea and Parry-Romberg syndrome: a retrospective review of 54 patients. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;56(2):257–63.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Chak G, Wang HZ, Feldon SE. Coup de sabre presenting with worsening diplopia and enophthalmos. Ophthalmic Plast Reconstr Surg. 2011;27(4):e97–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Fett N, Werth VP. Update on morphea: part II. Outcome measures and treatment. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;64(2)231–42; quiz 243–4.Google Scholar
  122. 122.
    Zwischenberger BA, Jacobe HT. A systematic review of morphea treatments and therapeutic algorithm. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2011;65(5):925–41.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Zulian F, et al. Methotrexate treatment in juvenile localized scleroderma: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Arthritis Rheum. 2011;63(7):1998–2006.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Foley PJ, et al. Human leukocyte antigen-DRB1 position 11 residues are a common protective marker for sarcoidosis. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2001;25(3):272–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Levin AM, et al. Association of HLA-DRB1 with sarcoidosis susceptibility and progression in African Americans. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol. 2015;53(2):206–16.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. 126.
    Rossman MD, et al. HLA-DRB1*1101: a significant risk factor for sarcoidosis in blacks and whites. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;73(4):720–35.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. 127.
    Rybicki BA, et al. Racial differences in sarcoidosis incidence: a 5-year study in a health maintenance organization. Am J Epidemiol. 1997;145(3):234–41.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    James DG, Neville E, Siltzbach LE. A worldwide review of sarcoidosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1976;278:321–34.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. 129.
    Edmondstone WM, Wilson AG. Sarcoidosis in Caucasians, Blacks and Asians in London. Br J Dis Chest. 1985;79(1):27–36.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. 130.
    Morimoto T, et al. Epidemiology of sarcoidosis in Japan. Eur Respir J. 2008;31(2):372–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    Baughman RP, Lower EE, du Bois RM. Sarcoidosis. Lancet. 2003;361(9363):1111–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Guidry C, et al. Imaging of Sarcoidosis: A Contemporary Review. Radiol Clin North Am. 2016;54(3):519–34.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    Wanat KA, Rosenbach M. Cutaneous Sarcoidosis. Clin Chest Med. 2015;36(4):685–702.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Chong WS, Tan HH, Tan SH. Cutaneous sarcoidosis in Asians: a report of 25 patients from Singapore. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2005;30(2):120–4.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Elgart ML. Cutaneous sarcoidosis: definitions and types of lesions. Clin Dermatol. 1986;4(4):35–45.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Mana J, et al. Granulomatous cutaneous sarcoidosis: diagnosis, relationship to systemic disease, prognosis and treatment. Sarcoidosis Vasc Diffuse Lung Dis. 2013;30(4):268–81.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  137. 137.
    Pasadhika S, Rosenbaum JT. Ocular Sarcoidosis. Clin Chest Med. 2015;36(4):669–83.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    Albertini JG, Tyler W, Miller OF 3rd. Ulcerative sarcoidosis. Case report and review of the literature. Arch Dermatol. 1997;133(2):215–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  139. 139.
    Heath CR, David J, Taylor SC. Sarcoidosis: are there differences in your skin of color patients? J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66(1):121.e1–14.Google Scholar
  140. 140.
    Pietinalho A, et al. The frequency of sarcoidosis in Finland and Hokkaido. Japan. A comparative epidemiological study. Sarcoidosis. 1995;12(1):61–7.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Lynch JP 3rd, et al. Cardiac involvement in sarcoidosis: evolving concepts in diagnosis and treatment. Semin Respir Crit Care Med. 2014;35(3):372–90.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Iwai K, et al. Racial difference in cardiac sarcoidosis incidence observed at autopsy. Sarcoidosis. 1994;11(1):26–31.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  143. 143.
    Haimovic A, et al. Sarcoidosis: a comprehensive review and update for the dermatologist: part II. Extracutaneous disease. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66(5):719.e1–10; quiz 729–30.Google Scholar
  144. 144.
    Soto-Gomez N, Peters JI, Nambiar AM. Diagnosis and Management of Sarcoidosis. Am Fam Physician. 2016;93(10):840–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  145. 145.
    Statement on sarcoidosis. Joint Statement of the American Thoracic Society (ATS), the European Respiratory Society (ERS) and the World Association of Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Disorders (WASOG) adopted by the ATS Board of Directors and by the ERS Executive Committee, February 1999. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;160(2):736–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Fernandez-Faith E, McDonnell J. Cutaneous sarcoidosis: differential diagnosis. Clin Dermatol. 2007;25(3):276–87.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Heinle R, Chang C. Diagnostic criteria for sarcoidosis. Autoimmun Rev. 2014;13(4–5):383–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Sekhri V, et al. Cardiac sarcoidosis: a comprehensive review. Arch Med Sci. 2011;7(4):546–54.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Gerke AK. Morbidity and mortality in sarcoidosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2014;20(5):472–8.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Mirsaeidi M, et al. Racial difference in sarcoidosis mortality in the United States. Chest. 2015;147(2):438–49.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  151. 151.
    Swigris JJ, et al. Sarcoidosis-related mortality in the United States from 1988 to 2007. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2011;183(11):1524–30.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    Haimovic A, et al. Sarcoidosis: a comprehensive review and update for the dermatologist: part I. Cutaneous disease. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2012;66(5):699 e1–18; quiz 717–8.Google Scholar
  153. 153.
    Doty JD, Mazur JE, Judson MA. Treatment of sarcoidosis with infliximab. Chest. 2005;127(3):1064–71.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Authors and Affiliations

  • Babu Singh
    • 1
  • Scott Walter
    • 1
  • Daniel J. CallaghanIII.
    • 1
  • Jennifer Paek
    • 2
  • Christina Lam
    • 1
  1. 1.Department of DermatologyBoston University Medical CenterBostonUSA
  2. 2.Boston University School of MedicineBostonUSA

Personalised recommendations