Towards Sustaining Levels of Reflective Learning: How Do Transformational Leadership, Task Interdependence, and Self-Efficacy Shape Teacher Learning in Schools?
Abstract
Whereas cross-sectional research has shown that transformational leadership, task interdependence, and self-efficacy are positively related to teachers’ engagement in reflective learning activities, the causal direction of these relations needs further inquiry. At the same time, individual teacher learning might play a mutual role in strengthening school-level capacity for sustained improvement. Building on previous research, this longitudinal study therefore examines how transformational leadership, task interdependence, self-efficacy, and teachers’ engagement in self-reflection mutually affect each other over time. Questionnaire data gathered on three measurement occasions from 655 Dutch Vocational Education and Training teachers was analyzed using a multivariate Latent Difference Score model. Results indicate that self-reflection and task interdependence reciprocally influence each other’s change. A considerate and stimulating transformational leader was found to contribute to this process. Change in self-efficacy was influenced by self-reflection, indicating that learning leads to competency beliefs. Together, the findings point to the important role transformational leadership practices play in facilitating teamwork, and sustaining teachers’ levels of learning in schools.
Keywords
Transformational Leadership Teacher Learning Measurement Occasion Intellectual Stimulation Task InterdependenceNotes
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Barbara Müller for her invaluable advice in the preparation of the manuscript. This work was supported by the NWO Programming Council for Educational Research (PROO) [grant number 411-07-302].
References
- Avolio, B. J., Zhu, W., Kho, W., & Bhata, P. (2004). Transformational leadership and organizational commitment: Mediating role of psychological empowerment and moderating role of structural distance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 25, 951–968.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.Google Scholar
- Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive development and functioning. Educational Psychologist, 28, 117–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.Google Scholar
- Barsalou, L. W. (2008). Grounded cognition. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 617–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Campion, M. A., Medsker, G. J., & Higgs, A. C. (1993). Relations between work groups characteristics and effectiveness: Implications for designing effective work groups. Personnel Psychology, 46, 823–847.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Caprara, G. V., Fida, R., Vecchione, M., del Bove, G., Vecchio, G. V., Barbaranelli, C., & Bandura, A. (2008). Longitudinal analysis of the role of perceived self-efficacy for self-regulated learning in academic continuance and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 525–534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Clarke, D. J., & Hollingsworth, H. (2002). Elaborating a model of teacher professional growth. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18, 947–967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Clement, M., & Vandenberghe, R. (2000). Teachers’ professional development: A solitary or collegial (ad)venture? Teaching and Teacher Education, 16, 81–101.Google Scholar
- Cole, D. A., & Maxwell, S. E. (2003). Testing mediational models with longitudinal data: Questions and tips in the use of structural equation modeling. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 112, 558–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cummings, T. G. (1978). Self-regulating work groups: A socio-technical analysis. Academy of Management Review, 3, 625–634.Google Scholar
- Day, C., Sammons, P., Leithwood, K., Hopkins, D., Harris, A., Gu, Q., & Brown, E. (2010). Ten strong claims about successful school leadership. Nottingham: NCLS.Google Scholar
- De Jong, S. B., van der Vegt, G. S., & Molleman, E. (2007). The relationships among asymmetry in task dependence, perceived helping behavior, and trust. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1625–1637.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38, 181–199.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Dionne, S. D., Yammarino, F. J., Atwater, L. E., & Spangler, W. D. (2007). Transformational leadership and team performance. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17, 177–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Edmondson, A. C., Dillon, J. R., & Roloff, K. S. (2007). 6 three perspectives on team learning: Outcome improvement, task mastery, and group process. Academy of Management Annals, 1, 269–314.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Eraut, M. (2004). Informal learning in the workplace. Studies in Continuing Education, 26, 247–273.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Eschleman, K. J., & LaHuis, D. (2013). Advancing occupational stress and health research and interventions using latent difference score modelling. International Journal of Stress Management, 21, 112–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Feldhoff, T., Radisch, F., & Klieme, E. (2014). Methods in longitudinal school improvement: State of the art. Journal of Educational Administration, 52, 565–736.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ferrer, E., & McArdle, J. J. (2010). Longitudinal modeling of developmental changes in psychological research. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 149–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Fullan, M. (2007). The new meaning of educational change (4th ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar
- Geijsel, F. P., Sleegers, P. J. C., & van den Berg, R. M. (1999). Transformational leadership and the implementation of large-scale innovation programs. Journal of Educational Administration, 37, 309–328.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Geijsel, F., Sleegers, P., Leithwood, K., & Jantzi, D. (2003). Transformational leadership effects on teachers’ commitment and effort toward school reform. Journal of Educational Administration, 41, 228–256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Geijsel, F. P., Sleegers, P. J., Stoel, R. D., & Kruger, M. L. (2009). The effect of teacher psychological and school organizational and leadership factors on teachers’ professional learning in Dutch schools. The Elementary School Journal, 109, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Giles, C., & Hargreaves, A. (2006). The sustainability of innovative schools as learning organizations and professional learning communities during standardized reform. Educational Administration Quarterly, 42, 124–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hallinger, P., & Heck, R. (2011). Exploring the journey of school improvement: Classifying and analyzing patterns of change in school improvement processes and learning outcomes. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 22, 149–173.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Heck, R. H., & Hallinger, P. (2010). Collaborative leadership effects on school improvement: Integrating unidirectional-and reciprocal-effects models. The Elementary School Journal, 226–252.Google Scholar
- Heck, R. H., & Hallinger, P. (2014). Modelling the longitudinal effects of school leadership on teaching and learning. Journal of Educational Administration, 52, 653–681.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Horn, I. S., & Little, J. W. (2010). Attending to problems of practice: Routines and resources for professional learning in teachers’ workplace interactions. American Educational Research Journal, 47, 181–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hoy, A. W., & Spero, R. B. (2005). Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching: A comparison of four measures. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 343–356.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Jarvis, P. (1987). Adult learning in the social context. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar
- Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). Energizing learning: The instructional power of conflict. Educational Researcher, 38, 37–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Jung, D. I., & Sosik, J. J. (2002). Transformational leadership in work groups: The role of empowerment, cohesiveness, and collective-efficacy on perceived group performance. Small Group Research, 33, 313–336.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Katz-Navon, T. Y., & Erez, M. (2005). When collective-and self-efficacy affect team performance the role of task interdependence. Small Group Research, 36, 437–465.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Klarner, P., Probst, G., & Soparnot, R. (2008). Organizational change capacity in public services: The case of the World Health Organization. Journal of Change Management, 8, 57–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Korek, S., Felfe, J., & Zäpernick-Rothe, U. (2010). Transformational leadership and commitment: A multilevel analysis of group-level influences and mediating processes. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 19, 364–387.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Korthagen, F. (2001, April). Linking practice and theory: The pedagogy of realistic teacher education. In Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Seattle, WA.Google Scholar
- Korthagen, F., & Vasalos, A. (2005). Levels in reflection: Core reflection as a means to enhance professional growth. Teachers and Teaching, 11, 47–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kwakman, K. (2003). Factors affecting teachers’ participation in professional learning activities. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19, 149–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Leithwood, K., Sleegers, P. (Eds.), (2006). Transforming school leadership [Special issue]. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 17.Google Scholar
- Leithwood, K., Jantzi, D., & Steinbach, R. (1999). Changing leadership for changing times. Buckingham: Open University.Google Scholar
- Leithwood, K., Jantzi, D., & Mascall, B. (2002). A framework for research on large-scale reform. Journal of Educational Change, 3, 7–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Little, J. (1990). The persistence of privacy: Autonomy and initiative in teachers’ professional relations. Teachers College Record, 91, 509–536.Google Scholar
- Lohman, M. C. (2005). A survey of factors influencing the engagement of two professional groups in informal workplace learning activities. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 16, 501–527.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Malmberg, L. E., Hagger, H., & Webster, S. (2014). Teachers’ situation-specific mastery experiences: Teacher, student group and lesson effects. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 29, 429–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Marsick, V. J., & Watkins, K. (1990). Informal and incidental learning in the workplace. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
- Maxwell, S. E., Cole, D. A., & Mitchell, M. A. (2011). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation: Partial and complete mediation under an autoregressive model. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 46, 816–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Maynard, M. T., Mathieu, J. E., Gilson, L. L., O’Boyle, E. H., & Cigularov, K. P. (2013). Drivers and outcomes of team psychological empowerment a meta-analytic review and model test. Organizational Psychology Review, 3, 101–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McArdle, J. J. (2009). Latent variable modeling of differences and changes with longitudinal data. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 577–605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McArdle, J. J., & Hamagami, F. (2001). Latent difference score structural models for linear dynamic analyses with incomplete longitudinal data. Learning and Individual Differences, 12, 53–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McArdle, J. J., & Prindle, J. J. (2008). A latent change score analysis of a randomized clinical trial in reasoning training. Psychology and Aging, 23, 702–719.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McArdle, K., & Coutts, N. (2010). Taking teachers’ continuous professional development (CPD) beyond reflection: Adding shared sense-making and collaborative engagement for professional renewal. Studies in Continuing Education, 32, 201–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McArdle, J. J., & Prindle, J. J. (2013). Basic issues in the measurement of change. In APA handbook of testing and assessment in psychology: Test theory and testing and assessment in industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 223–243). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
- McArdle, J. J., Hamagami, F., Meredith, W., & Bradway, K. P. (2000). Modeling the dynamic hypotheses of Gf-Gc theory using longitudinal life-span data. Learning and Individual Differences, 12, 53–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Meirink, J. A., Meijer, P. C., Verloop, N., & Bergen, T. C. (2009). How do teachers learn in the workplace? An examination of teacher learning activities. European Journal of Teacher Education, 32, 209–224.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Meirink, J. A., Imants, J., Meijer, P. C., & Verloop, N. (2010). Teacher learning and collaboration in innovative teams. Cambridge Journal of Education, 40, 161–181.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Moolenaar, N. M., Sleegers, P. J. C., & Daly, A. J. (2012). Teaming up: Linking collaboration networks, collective efficacy, and student achievement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28, 251–262.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mulford, B. (2010). Recent developments in the field of educational leadership: The challenge of complexity. In A. Hargreaves, A. Lieberman, M. Fullan, & D. Hopkins (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational change (pp. 187–208). Dordrecht: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles: Author.Google Scholar
- Nielsen, K., & Munir, F. (2009). How do transformational leaders influence followers’ affective wellbeing? Exploring the mediating role of self-efficacy. Work and Stress, 23, 313–329.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Nir, A. E., & Kranot, N. (2006). School principal’s leadership style and teachers’ self-efficacy. Planning and Changing, 37, 205–218.Google Scholar
- Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation. Organization Science, 5, 14–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Oort, F. J., Visser, M. R. M., & Sprangers, M. A. G. (2009). Formal definitions of measurement bias and explanation bias clarify measurement and conceptual perspectives on response shift. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 62(11), 29–1137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Oude Groote Beverborg, A., Sleegers, P. J. C., & van Veen, K. (2015). Fostering teacher learning in VET colleges: Do leadership and teamwork matter? Teaching and Teacher Education, 48, 22–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Phan, H. P. (2012). The development of English and mathematics self-efficacy: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Educational Research, 105, 196–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Poortman, C.L. (2007). Workplace learning processes in senior secondary vocational education. Ph.D. thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands. Retrieved from http://doc.utwente.nl/57877/1/thesis_Poortman.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Putnam, R. T., & Borko, H. (2000). What do new views of knowledge and thinking have to say about research on teacher learning? Educational Researcher, 29, 4–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Raudenbush, S. W., Rowan, B., & Cheong, Y. F. (1992). Contextual effects on the self-perceived efficacy of high school teachers. Sociology of Education, 65, 150–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Richardson, V., & Placier, P. (2001). Teacher change. In Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 905–947). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.Google Scholar
- Ross, J. A., Cousins, J. B., & Gadalla, T. (1996). Within-teacher predictors of teacher efficacy. Teaching and Teacher Education, 12, 386–400.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Runhaar, P.R. (2008). Promoting teachers’ professional development. Ph.D. thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands. Retrieved from http://doc.utwente.nl/60129/1/thesis_Runhaar,_P.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Runhaar, P., Sanders, K., & Yang, H. (2010). Stimulating teachers’ reflection and feedback asking: An interplay of self-efficacy, learning goal orientation, and transformational leadership. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 1154–1161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Salanova, M., Bakker, A. B., & Llorens, S. (2006). Flow at work: Evidence for an upward spiral of personal and organizational resources. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sbarra, D. A., & Allen, J. J. (2009). Decomposing depression: On the prospective and reciprocal dynamics of mood and sleep disturbances. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 171–182.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New York: Basic.Google Scholar
- Schyns, B. (2004). The influence of occupational self-efficacy on the relationship of leadership behavior and preparedness for occupational change. Journal of Career Development, 30, 247–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Schyns, B., & Von Collani, G. (2002). A new self-efficacy scale and its relation to personality constructs and organizational variables. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 11, 219–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Scribner, J. P., Hager, D. R., & Warne, T. R. (2002). The paradox of professional community: Tales from two high schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38, 45–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Simbula, S., Guglielmi, D., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2011). A three-wave study of job resources, self-efficacy, and work engagement among Italian schoolteachers. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20, 285–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sleegers, P., Bolhuis, S., & Geijsel, F. (2005). School improvement within a knowledge economy: Fostering professional learning from a multidimensional perspective. In N. Bascia, A. Cumming, A. Datnow, K. Leithwood, & D. Livingstone (Eds.), International handbook of educational policy (pp. 527–543). Dordrecht: Kluwer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sleegers, P. J. C., Thoonen, E. E. J., Oort, F. J., & Peetsma, T. T. D. (2014). Improving classroom practices: The role of school-wide capacity for sustainable improvement. Journal of Educational Administration, 52, 617–652.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Smylie, M. A., & Hart, A. W. (1999). School leadership for teacher learning and change: A human and social capital development perspective. In J. Murphy & K. S. Louis (Eds.), Handbook of research on educational administration (pp. 421–441). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
- Smylie, M. A., Lazarus, V., & Brownlee-Conyers, J. (1996). Instructional outcomes of school-based participative decision making. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analyis, 18, 181–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Somech, A., & Bogler, R. (2002). Antecedents and consequences of teacher organizational and professional commitment. Educational Administration Quarterly, 38, 555–577.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Spillane, J. P., Reiser, B. J., & Reimer, T. (2002). Policy implementation and cognition: Reframing and refocussing implementation research. Review of Educational Research, 72, 387–431.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Spillane, J. P., Kim, C. M., & Frank, K. A. (2012). Instructional advice and information providing and receiving behavior in elementary schools exploring tie formation as a building block in social capital development. American Educational Research Journal, 49, 1112–1145.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Staples, D. S., & Webster, J. (2008). Exploring the effects of trust, task interdependence and virtualness on knowledge sharing in teams. Information Systems Journal, 18, 617–640.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Stoll, L. (2009). Capacity building for school improvement or creating capacity for learning? A changing landscape. Journal of Educational Change, 10, 115–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Stoll, L., Bolam, R., McMahon, A., Wallace, M., & Thomas, S. (2009). Professional learning communities: A review of the literature. Journal of Educational Change, 7, 221–258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Stone, R. W., & Bailey, J. J. (2007). Team conflict self-efficacy and outcome expectancy of business students. Journal of Education for Business, 82, 258–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sun, J., & Leithwood, K. (2012). Transformational leadership effects on student achievement. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 11, 418–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Thoonen, E. E. J., Sleegers, P. J. C., Oort, F. J., Peetsma, T. T. D., & Geijsel, F. P. (2011). How to improve teaching practices: The role of teacher motivation, organizational factors, and leadership practices. Educational Administration Quarterly, 47, 496–536.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Thoonen, E. E., Sleegers, P. J., Oort, F. J., & Peetsma, T. T. (2012). Building school-wide capacity for improvement: The role of leadership, school organizational conditions, and teacher factors. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 23, 441–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Timperley, H., & Alton-Lee, A. (2008). Reframing teacher professional learning: An alternative policy approach to strengthening valued outcomes for diverse learners. Review of Research in Education, 32, 328–369.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tims, M., Bakker, A. B., & Xanthopoulou, D. (2011). Do transformational leaders enhance their followers’ daily work engagement? The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 121–131.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tjosvold, D., Yu, Z. Y., & Hui, C. (2004). Team learning from mistakes: The contribution of cooperative goals and problem-solving. Journal of Management Studies, 41, 1223–1245.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Truijen, K. (2012). Teacher teaming: Exploring factors that influence effective team functioning in a vocational education context. Ph.D. thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands, Retrieved from http://doc.utwente.nl/80028/1/thesis_K_Truijen.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Van der Vegt, G., Emans, B., & van de Vliert, E. (2000). Team members’ affective responses to patterns of intragroup interdependence and job complexity. Journal of Management, 26, 633–655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Van Woerkom, M. (2003). Critical reflection at work: Bridging individual and organisational learning. Ph.D. thesis, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
- Van Woerkom, M. (2004). The concept of critical reflection and its implications for human resource development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6, 178–192.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wageman, R. (1995). Interdependence and group effectiveness. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 145–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Walumbwa, F. O., Lawler, J. J., Avolio, B. J., Wang, P., & Shi, K. (2005). Transformational leadership and work-related attitudes: The moderating effects of collective and self-efficacy across cultures. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11, 2–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2009). Reciprocal relationships between job resources, personal resources, and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74, 235–244.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Yammarino, F. J., Dionne, S. D., Schriesheim, C. A., & Dansereau, F. (2008). Authentic leadership and positive organizational behavior: A meso, multi-level perspective. The Leadership Quarterly, 19, 693–707.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Yost, D. S. (2006). Reflection and self-efficacy: Enhancing the retention of qualified teachers from a teacher education perspective. Teacher Education Quarterly, 33, 59–76.Google Scholar