Graphene-Incorporated Sol-Gel Materials for Energy Applications

Chapter
First Online:
Part of the Advances in Sol-Gel Derived Materials and Technologies book series (Adv.Sol-Gel Deriv. Materials Technol.)

Abstract

During the last few decades, energy conversion devices and energy storage devices have been of great interest among scientists and engineers because of the fast depletion of petroleum fuels. Recently researchers are focusing on graphene-based materials for energy applications due to its high specific surface area, excellent electrical properties, high mechanical properties, and very good chemical stability. The 2D allotrope of carbon-based material is an ideal candidate for next generation energy devices. This chapter gives an overview on the recent research on graphene-incorporated sol-gel materials for energy conversion and storage applications, such as supercapacitors, solar cells, lithium-ion batteries, and fuel cells.

Keywords

Solar Cell Graphene Oxide Graphene Sheet Reduce Graphene Oxide Power Conversion Efficiency 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Choi, H.-J., Jung, S.-M., Seo, J.-M., Chang, D.W., Dai, L., Baek, J.-B.: Graphene for energy conversion and storage in fuel cells and supercapacitors. Nano. Energy 1(4), 534–551 (2012). doi: 10.1016/j.nanoen.2012.05.001
  2. 2.
    Morozov, S.V., Novoselov, K.S., Katsnelson, M.I., Schedin, F., Elias, D.C., Jaszczak, J.A., Geim, A.K.: Giant Intrinsic carrier mobilities in graphene and its bilayer. Phys. Rev. Lett. 100(1), 016602 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Nair, R.R., Blake, P., Grigorenko, A.N., Novoselov, K.S., Booth, T.J., Stauber, T., Peres, N.M.R., Geim, A.K.: Fine structure constant defines visual transparency of graphene. Science 320(5881), 1308–1309 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Balandin, A.A., Ghosh, S., Bao, W., Calizo, I., Teweldebrhan, D., Miao, F., Lau, C.N.: superior thermal conductivity of single-layer graphene. Nano Lett. 8(3), 902–907 (2008). doi: 10.1021/nl0731872 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Zhang, Y., Tan, Y.-W., Stormer, H.L., Kim, P.: Experimental observation of the quantum Hall effect and Berry’s phase in graphene. Nature 438(7065), 201–204 (2005). http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7065/suppinfo/nature04235_S1.html
  6. 6.
    Pirruccio, G., Martín Moreno, L., Lozano, G., Gómez Rivas, J.: Coherent and broadband enhanced optical absorption in graphene. ACS Nano 7(6), 4810–4817 (2013). doi: 10.1021/nn4012253 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Castro Neto, A.H., Guinea, F., Peres, N.M.R., Novoselov, K.S., Geim, A.K.: The electronic properties of graphene. Rev. Mod. Phys. 81(1), 109–162 (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Chen, D., Tang, L., Li, J.: Graphene-based materials in electrochemistry. Chem. Soc. Rev. 39(8), 3157–3180 (2010). doi: 10.1039/b923596e CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Pumera, M.: Graphene-based nanomaterials and their electrochemistry. Chem. Soc. Rev. 39(11), 4146–4157 (2010). doi: 10.1039/c002690p CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Zhang, L.L., Zhao, X.S.: Carbon-based materials as supercapacitor electrodes. Chem. Soc. Rev. 38(9), 2520–2531 (2009). doi: 10.1039/b813846j CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Lee, S.K., Kim, H., Shim, B.S.: Graphene: an emerging material for biological tissue engineering. Carbon lett. Korean Carbon Soc. 14(2), (2013). doi: 10.5714/CL.2013.14.2.063 ( 10.5714/CL.2013.5714.5712.5063)
  12. 12.
    Geim, A.K., Novoselov, K.S.: The rise of graphene. Nat. Mater. 6(3), 183–191 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Xia, J., Chen, F., Li, J., Tao, N.: Measurement of the quantum capacitance of graphene. Nat. Nano 4(8), 505–509 (2009). http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/v4/n8/suppinfo/nnano.2009.177_S1.html
  14. 14.
    Wang, H., Hao, Q., Yang, X., Lu, L., Wang, X.: A nanostructured graphene/polyaniline hybrid material for supercapacitors. Nanoscale 2(10), 2164–2170 (2010). doi: 10.1039/c0nr00224k CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Yu, G., Hu, L., Vosgueritchian, M., Wang, H., Xie, X., McDonough, J.R., Cui, X., Cui, Y., Bao, Z.: Solution-processed graphene/MnO2 nanostructured textiles for high-performance electrochemical capacitors. Nano Lett. 11(7), 2905–2911 (2011). doi: 10.1021/nl2013828 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Yan, J., Fan, Z., Wei, T., Qian, W., Zhang, M., Wei, F.: Fast and reversible surface redox reaction of graphene–MnO2 composites as supercapacitor electrodes. Carbon 48(13), 3825–3833 (2010). doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2010.06.047 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Wu, Z.-S., Wang, D.-W., Ren, W., Zhao, J., Zhou, G., Li, F., Cheng, H.-M.: Anchoring hydrous RuO2 on graphene sheets for high-performance electrochemical capacitors. Adv. Funct. Mater. 20(20), 3595–3602 (2010). doi: 10.1002/adfm.201001054 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Liu, C., Yu, Z., Neff, D., Zhamu, A., Jang, B.Z.: Graphene-based supercapacitor with an ultrahigh energy density. Nano Lett. 10(12), 4863–4868 (2010). doi: 10.1021/nl102661q CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Wang, C.-C., Chen, H.-C., Lu, S.-Y.: Manganese oxide/graphene aerogel composites as an outstanding supercapacitor electrode material. Chem. A Eur. J. 20(2), 517–523 (2014). doi: 10.1002/chem.201303483 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Chen, S., Zhu, J., Wu, X., Han, Q., Wang, X.: Graphene oxide—MnO2 nanocomposites for supercapacitors. ACS Nano 4(5), 2822–2830 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Hu, C.-C., Chen, W.-C., Chang, K.-H.: How to achieve maximum utilization of hydrous ruthenium oxide for supercapacitors. J. Electrochem. Soc. 151(2), A281–A290 (2004). doi: 10.1149/1.1639020 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Pekala, R.W.: Organic aerogels from the polycondensation of resorcinol with formaldehyde. J. Mater. Sci. 24(9), 3221–3227 (1989). doi: 10.1007/bf01139044 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Lin, C., Ritter, J.A.: Effect of synthesis pH on the structure of carbon xerogels. Carbon 35(9), 1271–1278 (1997). doi: 10.1016/S0008-6223(97)00069-9 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Schmidt-Mende, L., MacManus-Driscoll, J.L.: ZnO—nanostructures, defects, and devices. Mater. Today 10(5), 40–48 (2007). doi: 10.1016/S1369-7021(07)70078-0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Xu, S., Cheng, C., Guo, W., He, Y., Huang, R., Du, S., Wang, N.: Tuning the optical and electrical properties of hydrothermally grown ZnO nanowires by sealed post annealing treatment. Solid State Commun. 160, 41–46 (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.ssc.2013.02.009 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Look, D.C., Hemsky, J.W., Sizelove, J.R.: Residual native shallow donor in ZnO. Phys. Rev. Lett. 82(12), 2552–2555 (1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Gu, H., Yang, Y., Tian, J., Shi, G.: Photochemical synthesis of noble metal (Ag, Pd, Au, Pt) on graphene/ZnO multihybrid nanoarchitectures as electrocatalysis for H2O2 reduction. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 5(14), 6762–6768 (2013). doi: 10.1021/am401738k CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Lee, J.M., Pyun, Y.B., Yi, J., Choung, J.W., Park, W.I.: ZnO nanorod—graphene hybrid architectures for multifunctional conductors. J. Phy. Chem. C 113(44), 19134–19138 (2009). doi: 10.1021/jp9078713 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Nguyen, T.L., Michael, M., Mulvaney, P.: Synthesis of highly crystalline CdSe@ZnO nanocrystals via monolayer-by-monolayer epitaxial shell deposition. Chem. Mater. 26(14), 4274–4279 (2014). doi: 10.1021/cm501858s CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Son, D.I., Kwon, B.W., Park, D.H., Seo, W.-S., Yi, Y., Angadi, B., Lee, C.L., Choi, W.K.: Emissive ZnO–graphene quantum dots for white-light-emitting diodes. Nat. Nano 7, 465–471 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Tak, Y., Hong, S.J., Lee, J.S., Yong, K.: Fabrication of ZnO/CdS core/shell nanowire arrays for efficient solar energy conversion. J. Mater. Chem. 19(33), 5945–5951 (2009). doi: 10.1039/b904993b CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Tian, J., Liu, S., Li, H., Wang, L., Zhang, Y., Luo, Y., Asiri, A.M., Al-Youbi, A.O., Sun, X.: One-step preparation of ZnO nanoparticle-decorated reduced graphene oxide composites and their application to photocurrent generation. RSC Adv. 2(4), 1318–1321 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Wang, C.-Y., Adhikari, S.: ZnO-CNT composite nanotubes as nanoresonators. Phys. Lett. A 375(22), 2171–2175 (2011). doi: 10.1016/j.physleta.2011.04.031 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Williams, G., Kamat, P.V.: Graphene—semiconductor nanocomposites: excited-state interactions between ZnO nanoparticles and graphene oxide. Langmuir 25(24), 13869–13873 (2009). doi: 10.1021/la900905h CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Zhu, Y., Elim, H.I., Foo, Y.L., Yu, T., Liu, Y., Ji, W., Lee, J.Y., Shen, Z., Wee, A.T.S., Thong, J.T.L., Sow, C.H.: Multiwalled carbon nanotubes beaded with ZnO nanoparticles for ultrafast nonlinear optical switching. Adv. Mater. 18(5), 587–592 (2006). doi: 10.1002/adma.200501918 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Zhang, C., Zhang, J., Su, Y., Xu, M., Yang, Z., Zhang, Y.: ZnO nanowire/reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites for significantly enhanced photocatalytic degradation of rhodamine 6G. Physica E 56, 251–255 (2014). doi: 10.1016/j.physe.2013.09.020 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Li, B., Cao, H.: ZnO@graphene composite with enhanced performance for the removal of dye from water. J. Mater. Chem. 21(10), 3346–3349 (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Singh, G., Choudhary, A., Haranath, D., Joshi, A.G., Singh, N., Singh, S., Pasricha, R.: ZnO decorated luminescent graphene as a potential gas sensor at room temperature. Carbon 50(2), 385–394 (2012). doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2011.08.050 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Wang, J., Gao, Z., Li, Z., Jiang, Z.: Green synthesis of grapheme nanosheets/ZnO composites and electrochemical properties. J. Solid State Chem. 184(6), 1421–1427 (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Chen, S., Zhu, J., Wang, X.: One-step synthesis of graphene—cobalt hydroxide nanocomposites and their electrochemical properties. J. Phys. Chem. C 114(27), 11829–11834 (2010)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Tielrooij, K.J., Song, J.C.W., Jensen, S.A., Centeno, A., Pesquera, A., Zurutuza Elorza, A., Bonn, M., Levitov, L.S., Koppens, F.H.L.: Photoexcitation cascade and multiple hot-carrier generation in graphene. Nat. Phys. 9(4), 248–252 (2013). doi:http://www.nature.com/nphys/journal/v9/n4/abs/nphys2564.html#supplementary-information
  42. 42.
    Pan, X., Yang, M.-Q., Xu, Y.-J.: Morphology control, defect engineering and photoactivity tuning of ZnO crystals by graphene oxide—a unique 2D macromolecular surfactant. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 16(12), 5589–5599 (2014). doi: 10.1039/c3cp55038a CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Peining, Z., Nair, A.S., Shengjie, P., Shengyuan, Y., Ramakrishna, S.: Facile fabrication of TiO2–graphene composite with enhanced photovoltaic and photocatalytic properties by electrospinning. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 4(2), 581–585 (2012). doi: 10.1021/am201448p CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Shao, D., Yu, M., Sun, H., Hu, T., lian, J., Sawyer, S.: High responsivity, fast ultraviolet photodetector fabricated from ZnO nanoparticle-graphene core-shell structures. Nanoscale 5(9), 3664–3667 (2013). doi: 10.1039/c3nr00369h CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Lightcap, I.V., Kosel, T.H., Kamat, P.V.: Anchoring semiconductor and metal nanoparticles on a two-dimensional catalyst mat. storing and shuttling electrons with reduced graphene oxide. Nano Lett. 10(2), 577–583 (2010). doi: 10.1021/nl9035109 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Jiang, B., Tian, C., Pan, Q., Jiang, Z., Wang, J.-Q., Yan, W., Fu, H.: Enhanced photocatalytic activity and electron transfer mechanisms of graphene/TiO2 with exposed 001 facets. J. Phy. Chem. C 115(48), 23718–23725 (2011). doi: 10.1021/jp207624x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Krishnamurthy, S., Kamat, P.V.: CdSe–graphene oxide light-harvesting assembly: size-dependent electron transfer and light energy conversion aspects. ChemPhysChem 15(10), 2129–2135 (2014). doi: 10.1002/cphc.201301189 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Chen, L., Zhou, Y., Tu, W., Li, Z., Bao, C., Dai, H., Yu, T., Liu, J., Zou, Z.: Enhanced photovoltaic performance of a dye-sensitized solar cell using graphene-TiO2 photoanode prepared by a novel in situ simultaneous reduction-hydrolysis technique. Nanoscale 5(8), 3481–3485 (2013). doi: 10.1039/c3nr34059g CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Mehmood, U., Ahmed, S., Hussein, I.A., Harrabi, K.: Improving the efficiency of dye sensitized solar cells by TiO2-graphene nanocomposite photoanode. Photonics Nanostruct. Fundam. Appl. 16, 34–42 (2015). doi: 10.1016/j.photonics.2015.08.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Song, J.-L., Wang, X.: Effect of incorporation of reduced graphene oxide on ZnO-based dye-sensitized solar cells. Physica E 81, 14–18 (2016). doi: 10.1016/j.physe.2016.02.005 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Cheng, P., Yang, Z., Wang, H., Cheng, W., Chen, M., Shangguan, W., Ding, G.: TiO2–graphene nanocomposites for photocatalytic hydrogen production from splitting water. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 37(3), 2224–2230 (2012). doi: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.11.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Zhou, K., Zhu, Y., Yang, X., Jiang, X., Li, C.: Preparation of graphene-TiO2 composites with enhanced photocatalytic activity. New J. Chem. 35(2), 353–359 (2011). doi: 10.1039/c0nj00623h CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Zhan, Z., Zheng, L., Pan, Y., Sun, G., Li, L.: Self-powered, visible-light photodetector based on thermally reduced graphene oxide-ZnO (rGO-ZnO) hybrid nanostructure. J. Mater. Chem. 22(6), 2589–2595 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Manga, K.K., Wang, S., Jaiswal, M., Bao, Q., Loh, K.P.: High-gain graphene-titanium oxide photoconductor made from inkjet printable ionic solution. Adv. Mater. 22(46), 5265–5270 (2010). doi: 10.1002/adma.201002939 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Azarang, M., Shuhaimi, A., Yousefi, R., Jahromi, S.P.: One-pot sol-gel synthesis of reduced graphene oxide uniformly decorated zinc oxide nanoparticles in starch environment for highly efficient photodegradation of Methylene Blue. RSC Adv. 5(28), 21888–21896 (2015). doi: 10.1039/c4ra16767h CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Kusumawati, Y., Martoprawiro, M.A., Pauporté, T.: Effects of Graphene in Graphene/TiO2 Composite Films Applied to Solar Cell Photoelectrode. J. Phys. Chem. C 118(19), 9974–9981 (2014). doi: 10.1021/jp502385p CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Sun, S., Gao, L., Liu, Y.: Enhanced dye-sensitized solar cell using graphene-TiO2 photoanode prepared by heterogeneous coagulation. Appl. Phys. Lett. 96(8), 083113 (2010). doi: 10.1063/1.3318466 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Yang, N., Zhai, J., Wang, D., Chen, Y., Jiang, L.: Two-dimensional graphene bridges enhanced photoinduced charge transport in dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS Nano 4(2), 887–894 (2010). doi: 10.1021/nn901660v CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Lim, S.P., Pandikumar, A., Huang, N.M., Lim, H.N.: Reduced graphene oxide–titania nanocomposite-modified photoanode for efficient dye-sensitized solar cells. Int. J. Energy Res. 39(6), 812–824 (2015). doi: 10.1002/er.3307 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Kim, S.-B., Park, J.-Y., Kim, C.-S., Okuyama, K., Lee, S.-E., Jang, H.-D., Kim, T.-O.: Effects of graphene in dye-sensitized solar cells based on nitrogen-doped TiO2 composite. J. Phys. Chem. C 119(29), 16552–16559 (2015). doi: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.5b02309 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Cheng, G., Akhtar, M.S., Yang, O.B., Stadler, F.J.: Novel preparation of anatase TiO2@reduced graphene oxide hybrids for high-performance dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 5(14), 6635–6642 (2013). doi: 10.1021/am4013374 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Fan, J., Liu, S., Yu, J.: Enhanced photovoltaic performance of dye-sensitized solar cells based on TiO2 nanosheets/graphene composite films. J. Mater. Chem. 22(33), 17027–17036 (2012). doi: 10.1039/c2jm33104g CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Zhu, P., Nair, A.S., Shengjie, P., Shengyuan, Y., Ramakrishna, S.: Facile fabrication of TiO2–graphene composite with enhanced photovoltaic and photocatalytic properties by electrospinning. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 4(2), 581–585 (2012). doi: 10.1021/am201448p CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Anish Madhavan, A., Kalluri, S., Chacko, D.K., Arun, T.A., Nagarajan, S., Subramanian, K.R.V., Sreekumaran Nair, A., Nair, S.V., Balakrishnan, A.: Electrical and optical properties of electrospun TiO2-graphene composite nanofibers and its application as DSSC photo-anodes. RSC Adv. 2(33), 13032–13037 (2012). doi: 10.1039/c2ra22091a CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Anta, J.A., Guillén, E., Tena-Zaera, R.: ZnO-based dye-sensitized solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. C 116(21), 11413–11425 (2012). doi: 10.1021/jp3010025 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Wang, H., Hu, Y.H.: Graphene as a counter electrode material for dye-sensitized solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 5(8), 8182–8188 (2012). doi: 10.1039/c2ee21905k CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Cheng, W.-Y., Wang, C.-C., Lu, S.-Y.: Graphene aerogels as a highly efficient counter electrode material for dye-sensitized solar cells. Carbon 54, 291–299 (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2012.11.041 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Ma, J., Li, C., Yu, F., Chen, J.: 3 D Single-walled carbon nanotube/graphene aerogels as Pt-free transparent counter electrodes for high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells. ChemSusChem 7(12), 3304–3311 (2014). doi: 10.1002/cssc.201403062 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Roy-Mayhew, J.D., Bozym, D.J., Punckt, C., Aksay, I.A.: Functionalized graphene as a catalytic counter electrode in dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS Nano 4(10), 6203–6211 (2010). doi: 10.1021/nn1016428 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Yang, H., Guai, G.H., Guo, C., Song, Q., Jiang, S.P., Wang, Y., Zhang, W., Li, C.M.: NiO/graphene composite for enhanced charge separation and collection in p-type dye sensitized solar cell. J. Phys. Chem. C 115(24), 12209–12215 (2011). doi: 10.1021/jp201178a CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Khurana, G., Sahoo, S., Barik, S.K., Katiyar, R.S.: Improved photovoltaic performance of dye sensitized solar cell using ZnO–graphene nano-composites. J. Alloys Compd. 578, 257–260 (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.jallcom.2013.05.080
  72. 72.
    Listorti, A., Juarez-Perez, E.J., Frontera, C., Roiati, V., Garcia-Andrade, L., Colella, S., Rizzo, A., Ortiz, P., Mora-Sero, I.: Effect of mesostructured layer upon crystalline properties and device performance on perovskite solar cells. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 6(9), 1628–1637 (2015). doi: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.5b00483
  73. 73.
    Zhang, L.Q., Zhang, X.W., Yin, Z.G., Jiang, Q., Liu, X., Meng, J.H., Zhao, Y.J., Wang, H.L.: Highly efficient and stable planar heterojunction perovskite solar cells via a low temperature solution process. J. Mater. Chem. A 3(23), 12133–12138 (2015). doi: 10.1039/c5ta01898f
  74. 74.
    Zhao, Y., Nardes, A.M., Zhu, K.: Solid-state mesostructured perovskite CH3NH3PbI3 solar cells: charge transport, recombination, and diffusion length. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 5(3), 490–494 (2014). doi: 10.1021/jz500003v
  75. 75.
    Ball, J.M., Lee, M.M., Hey, A., Snaith, H.J.: Low-temperature processed meso-superstructured to thin-film perovskite solar cells. Energy Environ. Sci. 6(6), 1739–1743 (2013). doi: 10.1039/c3ee40810h CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Lee, M.M., Teuscher, J., Miyasaka, T., Murakami, T.N., Snaith, H.J.: Efficient hybrid solar cells based on meso-superstructured organometal halide perovskites. Science 338(6107), 643–647 (2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Matas Adams, A., Marin-Beloqui, J.M., Stoica, G., Palomares, E.: The influence of the mesoporous TiO2 scaffold on the performance of methyl ammonium lead iodide (MAPI) perovskite solar cells: charge injection, charge recombination and solar cell efficiency relationship. J. Mater. Chem. A 3(44), 22154–22161 (2015). doi: 10.1039/c5ta06041a
  78. 78.
    Son, D.-Y., Im, J.-H., Kim, H.-S., Park, N.-G.: 11% Efficient perovskite solar cell based on ZnO nanorods: an effective charge collection system. J. Phys. Chem. C 118(30), 16567–16573 (2014). doi: 10.1021/jp412407j
  79. 79.
    Wang, J.T.-W., Ball, J.M., Barea, E.M., Abate, A., Alexander-Webber, J.A., Huang, J., Saliba, M., Mora-Sero, I., Bisquert, J., Snaith, H.J., Nicholas, R.J.: Low-temperature processed electron collection layers of graphene/TiO2 nanocomposites in thin film perovskite solar cells. Nano. Lett. 14(2), 724–730 (2014b). doi: 10.1021/nl403997a
  80. 80.
    Han, G.S., Song, Y.H., Jin, Y.U., Lee, J.-W., Park, N.-G., Kang, B.K., Lee, J.-K., Cho, I.S., Yoon, D.H., Jung, H.S.: reduced graphene oxide/mesoporous TiO2 nanocomposite based perovskite solar cells. ACS Appl.Mater. Interfaces 7(42), 23521–23526 (2015). doi: 10.1021/acsami.5b06171
  81. 81.
    Kang, K.S., Meng, Y.S., Breger, J., Grey, C.P., Ceder, G.: Electrodes with high power and high capacity for rechargeable lithium batteries. Science 311, 977–980 (2006)Google Scholar
  82. 82.
    Chan, C.K., Peng, H.L., Liu, G., Mcllwrath, K., Zhang, X.F., Huggins, R.A., Nat, C.Y.: High-performance lithium battery anodes using silicon nanowires. Nanotechnology 3, 31–35 (2008)Google Scholar
  83. 83.
    Maier, J.: Nanoionics: ion transport and electrochemical storage in confined systems. Nat. Mater. 4, 805–815 (2005)Google Scholar
  84. 84.
    Tarascon, J.M., Armand, M.: Issues and challenges facing rechargeable lithium batteries. Nature, 414, 359–367 (2001)Google Scholar
  85. 85.
    Zhou, Y.K., Cao, L., Zhang, F.B., He, B.L., Li, H.L.: Lithium insertion into TiO2 nanotube prepared by the hydrothermal process. J. Electrochem. Soc. 150,1246–1249 (2003)Google Scholar
  86. 86.
    Baudrin, E., Cassaignon, S., Koesch, M., Jolivet, J.P., Dupont, L., Tarascon, J.M.: Structural evolution during the reaction of Li with nano-sized rutile type TiO2 at room temperature. Electrochem. Commun. 9, 337–342 (2007)Google Scholar
  87. 87.
    Hu, Y.S., Kienle, L., Guo, Y.G., Maier, J.: High lithium electroactivity of nanometer-sized rutile TiO2. Adv. Mater. 18, 1421–1426 (2006)Google Scholar
  88. 88.
    Wang, D., Choi, D., Li, J., Yang, Z., Z., Nie, Kou, R., Hu, D., Wang, C., Saraf, L.V., Zhang, J., Aksay, I.A., Liu, J.: Self-assembled TiO2–graphene hybrid nanostructures for enhanced Li-Ion insertion. ACS Nano 3(4), 907–914 (2009)Google Scholar
  89. 89.
    Qiu, B., Xing, M., Zhang, J.: Mesoporous TiO2 nanocrystals grown in situ on graphene aerogels for high photocatalysis and lithium-ion batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136, 5852–5855 (2014)Google Scholar
  90. 90.
    Idota, Y., Kubota, T., Matsufuji, A., Maekawa, Y., Miyasaka, T.: A high-capacity lithium- ion-storage material. Science 276, 1395–1397 (1997)Google Scholar
  91. 91.
    Liang, J., Wei, W., Zhong, D., Yang, Q., Li, L., Guo, L.: One-step in situ synthesis of sno2/graphene nanocomposites and its application as an anode material for li-ion batteries. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 4(1), 454–459 (2012). doi: 10.1021/am201541s
  92. 92.
    Chen, Z., Li, H., Tian, R., Duan, H., Guo, Y., Chen, Y., Zhou, J., Zhang, C., Dugnani, R., Liu, H.: Three dimensional Graphene aerogels as binder-less, freestanding, elastic and high-performance electrodes for lithium-ion batteries. Sci. Rep. 6, 7365 (2016). doi: 10.1038/srep27365. http://www.nature.com/articles/srep27365#supplementary-information
  93. 93.
    Gong, C., Zhang, Y., Yao, M., Wei, Y., Li, Q., Liu, B., Liu, R., Yao, Z., Cui, T., Zou, B., Liu, B.: Green synthesis of 3D SnO2/graphene aerogels and their application in lithium-ion batteries. RSC Adv. 5(50), 39746–39751 (2015). doi: 10.1039/c5ra05711f
  94. 94.
    Cao, H., Zhou, X., Deng, W., Liu, Z.: A compressible and hierarchical porous graphene/Co composite aerogel for lithium-ion batteries with high gravimetric/volumetric capacity. J. Mater. Chem. A 4(16), 6021–6028 (2016). doi: 10.1039/c6ta00064a CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Zhou, Y., Liu, Q., Liu, D., Xie, H., Wu, G., Huang, W., Tian, Y., He, Q., Khalil, A., Haleem, Y.A., Xiang, T., Chu, W., Zou, C., Song, L.: Carbon-coated MoO2 dispersed in three-dimensional graphene aerogel for lithium-ion battery. Electrochimica Acta 174, 8–14 (2015). doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.05.153
  96. 96.
    Yoo, J.J., Balakrishnan, K., Huang, J., Meunier, V., Sumpter, B.G., Srivastava, A., Conway, M., Mohana Reddy, A.L., Yu, J., Vajtai, R., Ajayan, P.M.: Ultrathin Planar Graphene Supercapacitors. Nano. Lett. 11(4), 1423–1427 (2011). doi: 10.1021/nl200225j
  97. 97.
    Du, Q., Zheng, M., Zhang, L., Wang, Y., Chen, J., Xue, L., Dai, W., Ji, G., Cao, J.: Preparation of functionalized graphene sheets by a low-temperature thermal exfoliation approach and their electrochemical supercapacitive behaviors. Electrochimica Acta 55(12), 3897–3903 (2010). doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2010.01.089
  98. 98.
    Jeong, H.M., Lee, J.W., Shin, W.H., Choi, Y.J., Shin, H.J., Kang, J.K., Choi, J.W.: Nitrogen-doped graphene for high-performance ultracapacitors and the importance of nitrogen-doped sites at basal planes. Nano. Lett. 11(6), 2472–2477 (2011). doi: 10.1021/nl2009058
  99. 99.
    Fan, Z., Yan, J., Zhi, L., Zhang, Q., Wei, T., Feng, J., Zhang, M., Qian, W., Wei, F.: A three-dimensional carbon nanotube/graphene sandwich and its application as electrode in supercapacitors. Adv. Mater. 22(33), 3723–3728 (2010). doi: 10.1002/adma.201001029
  100. 100.
    Guo, C.X., Li, C.M.: A self-assembled hierarchical nanostructure comprising carbon spheres and graphene nanosheets for enhanced supercapacitor performance. Energy Environ Sci 4(11), 4504–4507 (2011). doi: 10.1039/c1ee01676h
  101. 101.
    Alvi, F., Ram, M.K., Basnayaka, P.A., Stefanakos, E., Goswami, Y., Kumar, A.: Graphene–polyethylenedioxythiophene conducting polymer nanocomposite based supercapacitor. Electrochimica Acta 56(25), 9406–9412 (2011). doi: 10.1016/j.electacta.2011.08.024
  102. 102.
    Xia, X., Tu, J., Mai, Y., Chen, R., Wang, X., Gu, C., Zhao, X.: Graphene sheet/porous NiO hybrid film for supercapacitor applications. Chem. Eur. J. 17(39), 10898–10905 (2011) doi: 10.1002/chem.201100727
  103. 103.
    Qu, Q., Yang, S., Feng, X.: 2D sandwich-like sheets of iron oxide grown on graphene as high energy anode material for supercapacitors. Adv. Mater. 23(46), 5574–5580. (2011) doi: 10.1002/adma.201103042
  104. 104.
    Yu, G., Hu, L., Liu, N., Wang, H., Vosgueritchian, M., Yang, Y., Cui, Y., Bao, Z.: Enhancing the supercapacitor performance of graphene/MnO2 nanostructured electrodes by conductive wrapping. Nano Lett. 11, 4438–4442 (2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of Polymer Science and Rubber TechnologyCochin University of Science and TechnologyKochiIndia
  2. 2.Department of PhysicsIndian Institute of TechnologyChennaiIndia

Personalised recommendations