Factor X pp 71-92 | Cite as

The Critical Raw Materials Concept: Subjective, Multifactorial and Ever-Developing

Chapter
First Online:
Part of the Eco-Efficiency in Industry and Science book series (ECOE, volume 32)

Abstract

Criticality analysis has established itself as a multifactorial, action-oriented, socio-economic raw materials scarcity assessment method which is subject to continuous development. A raw material is critical when its supply is at risk and a company or economy is vulnerable to supply restrictions of that raw material. The binary labelling of raw materials as either critical or not delivers a strong message. However, each raw material has a characteristic risk profile which may not be described by an aggregated criticality score and a discrete treshold value. A differentiated interpretation allows for a deeper understanding of the raw material supply situation and for the adoption of appropriate measures. Criticality should be understood as a continuum, subjective to the raw material system in question. A harmonised criticality methodology presented in the industrial guideline on resource efficiency (VDI 4800-II) allows for a flexible application of the concept.

ÖkoRess, a research project of the German Environment Agency, examines why and how environmental aspects should be included into the criticality concept. A raw material is consequently environmentally critical if it exhibits a high overall environmental hazard potential and is at the same time of great importance for a company or economy. A high environmental hazard potential can indicate a future supply risk. The conclusions to be drawn, however, differ from the conclusions from conventional criticality analysis. Ecological criticality widens the focus to include measures used to foster responsible sourcing and mining practices, which until now have not been discussed in the context of criticality.

Keywords

Criticality Raw materials Critical raw materials Ecological criticality Environmental hazard potential Mining Scarcity Supply risk Vulnerability Raw material supply Responsible sourcing Responsible mining 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Disclaimer

This paper does not necessarily reflect the opinion or the policies of the German Federal Environment Agency.

References

  1. Angerer G et al. (2016) Rohstoffe für die Energieversorgung der Zukunft: Geologie – Märkte – Umwelteinflüsse. MünchenGoogle Scholar
  2. Bardi U, Randers J (2014) Extracted: how the quest for mineral wealth is plundering the planet; a reportnto the Club of Rome/Ugo Bardi. VT Chelsea Green Publishing, White River JunctionGoogle Scholar
  3. Birshan M, Decaix G, Ferreira N, Robinson H (2015) Is there hidden treasure in the mining industry? Low equity prices may offer important M&A opportunities for the mining industry. McKinsey & CompanyGoogle Scholar
  4. Buchert M, Schueler D, Bleher D (2009) Critical metals for future sustainable technologies and their recycling potential. UNEP/Öko-Institut e.V, Paris/DarmstadtGoogle Scholar
  5. Buchert M, Behrendt S, Degreif S, Bulach W, Schüler D (2017) SubSkrit: Substituting critical raw materials in environmental technologies (FKZ: 3714 93 316 0). Öko Institut e.V – Institute for applied ecology. IZT – Institut for Future Studies and Technology AssessmentGoogle Scholar
  6. Buchholz P, Huy D, Liedtke M, Schmidt M (2014) DERA-Rohstoffliste 2014 – Angebotskonzentration bei mineralischen Rohstoffen und Zwischenprodukten – potenzielle Preis- und Lieferrisiken.. DERA Rohstoffinformationen. DERA – Deutsche Rohstoffagentur in der Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, BerlinGoogle Scholar
  7. Buijs B, Sievers H, LAT E (2012) Limits to the critical raw materials approach. Proc ICE Waste Resour Manag 165:201–208Google Scholar
  8. Coulomb R, Dietz S, Godunova M, Nielsen TB (2015) Critical minerals today and in 2030. OECD Publishing, Paris. doi:10.1787/5jrtknwm5hr5-enCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Dehoust G, Manhart A, Vogt R, Kämper C, Giegrich J, Priester M, Rechlin A (2017a) ÖkoRess: environmental limits, environmental availability and environmental criticality of primary raw materials (FKZ: 3713 93 302). Öko Institut – Institute for applied ecology; ifeu – Institute for Energy and Environmental Research; projekt-consultGoogle Scholar
  10. Dehoust G et al. (2017b) ÖkoRess II: further development of policy options for an ecological raw materials policy (FKZ: 3715 32 310 0). Öko Institut – Institute for applied ecology; ifeu – Institute for Energy and Environmental Research; projekt-consult; adelphi researchGoogle Scholar
  11. DoE U (2010) Critical materials strategy. U.S. Department of Energy, WashingtonGoogle Scholar
  12. Erdmann L, Graedel TE (2011) Criticality of non-fuel minerals: a review of major approaches and analyses. Environ Sci Technol 45:7620–7630. doi:10.1021/es200563gCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. EU COM (2008) The raw materials initiative — meeting our critical needs for growth and jobs in Europe. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament. COM (2008) 699 final, 4 November 2008. EU COM, BrusselsGoogle Scholar
  14. EU COM (2010) Critical raw materials for the EU. European Commission, BrusselsGoogle Scholar
  15. EU COM (2014) Report on critical raw materials for the EU. European Commission, BrusselsGoogle Scholar
  16. Fairphone (2017) Fairer materials – a list of the 10 we’re focusing on Fairphone. https://www.fairphone.com/en/2017/01/26/fairer-materials-a-list-of-the-next-10-were-taking-on/. Accessed 6 march 2017
  17. Faulstich M, Franke M, Mocker M, Kaufhold T, Kroop S (2014) Kritische Rohstoffe für Baden-Württemberg : Grundlagen und Empfehlungen im Rahmen der Landesstrategie Ressourceneffizienz. Umweltwirtschaftsforum: uwf; die betriebswirtschaftlich-ökologisch orientierte Fachzeitschrift 22:133–137CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Gandenberger C, Glöser S, Marscheider-Weidemann F, Ostertag K, Walz R (2012) Die Versorgung der deutschen Wirtschaft mit Roh- und Werkstoffen für Hochtechnologien – Präzisierung und Weiterentwicklung der deutschen Rohstoffstrategie. TAB – Büro für Technikfolgen-Abschätzung beim Deutschen Bundestag, BerlinGoogle Scholar
  19. Giraud P-N (2012) A note on Hubbert’s thesis on mineral commodities production peaks and derived forecasting techniques. Procedia Eng 46:22–26. doi:10.1016/j.proeng.2012.09.441 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Glöser S, Tercero Espinoza L, Gandenberger C, Faulstich M (2015) Raw material criticality in the context of classical risk assessment. Resour Policy 44:35–46. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2014.12.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  21. Graedel TE et al (2011) Methodology of metal criticality determination. Environ Sci Technol 46:1063–1070. doi:10.1021/es203534z CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Graedel T, Gunn G, Espinoza LT (2014) 1. Metal resources, use and criticality. In: Critical metals handbook. Wiley, Chichester, pp 1–19Google Scholar
  23. Graedel TE, Harper EM, Nassar NT, Nuss P, Reck BK (2015) Criticality of metals and metalloids. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112:4257–4262. doi:10.1073/pnas.1500415112 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Harper EM et al (2015) Criticality of the geological zinc, tin, and lead family. J Ind Ecol 19:628–644. doi:10.1111/jiec.12213 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Helbig C, Wietschel L, Thorenz A, Tuma A (2016) How to evaluate raw material vulnerability – an overview. Resour Policy 48:13–24. doi:10.1016/j.resourpol.2016.02.003 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Hubbert MK (1956) Nuclear energy and the fossil fuels. Paper presented at the drilling and production practice, New York, 1 January 1956Google Scholar
  27. ICMM (2012) Trends in the mining and metals industry. International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM), LondonGoogle Scholar
  28. International Institute for Industrial Environmental Economics (IEEE) (2016) Circle of light. The impact of the LED lifecycle. Lund University, LundGoogle Scholar
  29. ISO (2006) ISO 14040:2006 environmental management – life cycle assessment – principles and framework vol ISO 14040:2006. DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V, BerlinGoogle Scholar
  30. ISO (2009) ISO 31000:2009 risk management – principles and guidelines vol ISO 31000:2009. DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V, BerlinGoogle Scholar
  31. Jevons WS (1865) The coal question: an enquiry concerning the progress of the Nation, and the probable exhaustion of our coal-mines. Macmillan, LondonGoogle Scholar
  32. Kaufman D, Kray A, Mastruzzi M (2010) The worldwide governance Indicators: methodology and analytical issues. Draft policy research working paper. Brookings Institution/World BankGoogle Scholar
  33. Marscheider-Weidemann F, Langkau S, Hummen T, Erdmann L, Espinoza LT, Angerer G (2016) Rohstoffe für Zukunftstechnologien 2016 – Raw materials for emerging technologies 2016. German Mineral Resources Agency DERA at the Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources BGR, BerlinGoogle Scholar
  34. Mauss R, Posch PN (2014) Marktpreisrisiken rohstoffintensiver Unternehmen – Identifikation und Management. In: Kausch P (ed) Strategische Rohstoffe – Risikovorsorge. Springer, Berlin, p 39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. May D, Prior T, Cordell D, Giurco D (2012) Peak minerals: theoretical foundations and practical application. Nat Resour Res 21:43–60. doi:10.1007/s11053-011-9163-z CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Meadows D, Meadows D (1972) The limits to growth. Earth Island Ltd., LondonGoogle Scholar
  37. Morley N, Eatherley D (2008) Material security: ensuring resource availability for the UK economy. C-Tech Innovation Limited, ChesterGoogle Scholar
  38. Moss R, Tzimas E, Kara H, Willis P, Kooroshy J (2011) Critical metals in strategic energy technologies. JRC-scientific and strategic reports, European Commission Joint Research Centre Institute for Energy and Transport, LuxembourgGoogle Scholar
  39. Nassar NT et al (2011) Criticality of the geological copper family. Environ Sci Technol 46:1071–1078. doi:10.1021/es203535w CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Nassar N, Graedel T, Harper E (2015a) By-product metals are technologically essential but have problematic supply. Sci Adv 1:1–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Nassar NT, Du X, Graedel TE (2015b) Criticality of the rare earth elements. J Ind Ecol:1–11. doi:10.1111/jiec.12237 Google Scholar
  42. NRC (2008) Minerals, critical minerals, and the US economy. National Academies Press, Washington, DCGoogle Scholar
  43. Paley W, Brown G, Bunker A, Hodgins E, Mason E (1952) Resources for freedom: a report to the President. Vol Bd. 1–5. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DCGoogle Scholar
  44. Pfeifer S, Franke M, Mocker M, Faulstich M (2012) Resource strategies for Hesse with special consideration on secondary raw materials. Wasser und Abfall 14:10–14. doi:10.1365/s35152-012-0152-2 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Pfleger P, Lichtblau K, Bardt H, Reller A (2009) Rohstoffsituation Bayern: Keine Zukunft ohne Rohstoffe. VBW (Vereinigung der Bayerischen Wirtschaft), MünchenGoogle Scholar
  46. Reller A (2011) Criticality of metal resources for functional materials used in electronics and microelectronics. Phys Status Solidi (RRL) – Rapid Res Lett 5:309–311. doi:10.1002/pssr.201105126 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Rockström J et al (2009) A safe operating space for humanity. Nature 461:472–475CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Rustad JR (2012) Peak nothing: recent trends in mineral resource production. Environ Sci Technol 46:1903–1906. doi:10.1021/es203065g CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Schandl H et al (2016) Global material flows and resource productivity. An assessment study of the UNEP international resource panel. United Nations Environment Programme, ParisGoogle Scholar
  50. Schmitz S, Paulini I (1999) Valuation as an element of life cycle assessments - German Federal Environmental Agency method for impact indicator standardization, impact category grouping (ranking), and interpretation in accordance with ISO 14042 and 14043. Federal Environment Agency, Berlin.Google Scholar
  51. Steffen W et al (2015) Planetary boundaries: guiding human development on a changing planet. Science 347. doi:10.1126/science.1259855 Google Scholar
  52. Sverdrup HU, Ragnarsdottir KV, Koca D (2017) An assessment of metal supply sustainability as an input to policy: security of supply extraction rates, stocks-in-use, recycling, and risk of scarcity. J Clean Prod 140:359–372. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.085 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Tercero Espinoza L et al (2013) Critical raw materials substitution profiles. CRM InnoNet Substitution of Critical Raw Materials, BrusselsGoogle Scholar
  54. The Federal Government (2002) Perspectives for Germany: our strategy for sustainable development; abridged version. The Federal Government, BerlinGoogle Scholar
  55. The Guardian (2015) China scraps quotas on rare earths after WTO complaint. Guardian News and Media Limited. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jan/05/china-scraps-quotas-rare-earth-wto-complaint. Accessed 5 March 2017
  56. UBA (2010) Statement of the German Environment Agency (UBA) on the “critical raw materials for the EU”. German Environment Agency (UBA), Dessau-RosslauGoogle Scholar
  57. USGS (2016) Mineral commodity summaries 2016. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston. http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/70140094 Google Scholar
  58. VDI (2016) VDI 4800 Blatt 2 (Draft): Ressourceneffizienz – Bewertung des Rohstoffaufwands. Association of german engineers (VDI)Google Scholar
  59. Walz R, Bodenheimer M, Gandenberger C (2016) Kritikalität und Positionalität: Was ist kritisch für wen – und weshalb? In: Exner A, Held M, Kümmerer K (eds) Kritische Metalle in der Großen Transformation. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-44839-7 Google Scholar
  60. Wellmer FW (2008) Reserves and resources of the geosphere, terms so often misunderstood. Is the life index of reserves of natural resources a guide to the future? Z dt Ges Geowiss 159:575–590Google Scholar
  61. Wellmer FW (2012) Was sind wirtschaftsstrategische Rohstoffe? In: Thomé-Kozmiensky KJ, Goldmann D (eds) Recycling und Rohstoffe, Band 5, vol 5. TK-Verlag, Neuruppin, pp 525–535Google Scholar
  62. Zepf V, Simmons J, Reller A, Ashfield M, Rennie C (2014) Materials critical to the energy industry – an introduction. BP p.l.c, LondonGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.German Environment Agency (UBA)Dessau-RoßlauGermany

Personalised recommendations