Revisiting the Entrepreneurial Mind pp 275-292 | Cite as
Thoughts Have Consequences: Attributions By and About Entrepreneurs
Abstract
An entrepreneurial venture cannot succeed if it is not begun, so an entrepreneur’s decision to start is absolutely critical. That decision will be affected by the entrepreneur’s beliefs about what personal traits are needed and whether she/he has them. Once started, an entrepreneurial venture only very rarely can be scaled without external financial support, provided by investors who have their own unique views of the required traits and likely causes of success. The principles of attribution theory inform our understanding of the causes of both success and failure. Additionally, well-documented errors in causal reasoning can adversely affect entrepreneurial action. This chapter describes the fundamentals of the attribution approach and suggests how correct attributions can support entrepreneurial behavior.
Keywords
Entrepreneurial Intention Nascent Entrepreneur Dispositional Property Causal Judgment Entrepreneurial VentureReferences
- Acs ZJ (2010) High-impact entrepreneurship. In: Acs ZJ, Audretsch DB (eds) Handbook of entrepreneurship research: an interdisciplinary survey and introduction. Springer, New York, NY, pp 165–182CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- American Bankruptcy Institute (2015) Annual business and nonbusiness filings by year (1980–2013). American Bankruptcy Institute, Alexandria, VAGoogle Scholar
- Birch DL (1979) The job generation process. MIT Program on Neighborhood and Regional Change, Cambridge, MAGoogle Scholar
- Birch DL (1981) Who creates jobs? Public Interest 65:3–14Google Scholar
- Birley S, Westhead P (1994) A taxonomy of business start-up reasons and their impact on firm growth and size. J Bus Ventur 9(1):7–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bradley GW (1978) Self-serving biases in the attribution process: a reexamination of the fact or fiction question. J Pers Soc Psychol 36(1):56–71. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.36.1.56 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Braga JN, Ferreira MB, Sherman SJ (2015) The effects of construal level on heuristic reasoning: the case of representativeness and availability. Decision 2(3):216–227CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Cardon MS, Stevens CE, Potter DR (2011) Misfortunes or mistakes?: cultural sensemaking of entrepreneurial failure. J Bus Ventur 26(1):79–92. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.06.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Carter NM, Gartner WB, Shaver KG, Gatewood EJ (2003) The career reasons of nascent entrepreneurs. J Bus Ventur 18(1):13–39CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Carter NM, Gartner WB, Shaver KG, Greene PG (2007) The career reasons of minority nascent entrepreneurs. In: Őzbilgin M, Malach-Pines A (eds) Career choice in management and entrepreneurship: a research companion. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp 433–463Google Scholar
- Cassar G (2007) Money, money, money? A longitudinal investigation of entrepreneur career reasons, growth preferences and achieved growth. Entrep Reg Dev 19(1):89–107. doi: 10.1080/08985620601002246 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Chang W-L, Liu WGH, Chiang S-M (2014) A study of the relationship between entrepreneurship courses and opportunity identification: an empirical survey. Asia Pacific Manage Rev 19(1):1–24. doi: 10.6126/APMR.2014.19.1.01 Google Scholar
- Clydesdale G (2012) Entrepreneurial opportunity: a framework for teaching. J Entrep Educ 15:19–38Google Scholar
- Collewaert V, Fassin Y (2013) Conflicts between entrepreneurs and investors: the impact of perceived unethical behavior. Small Bus Econ 40(3):635–649. doi: 10.1007/s11187-011-9379-7 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Costa SF, Ehrenhard ML, Caetano A, Santos SC (2015) The role of different opportunities in the activation and use of the business opportunity prototype. Creat Innov Manage. doi: 10.1111/caim.12160 Google Scholar
- Davis AE, Shaver KG (2009) Social motives in the PSED II. In: Reynolds PD, Curtin RT (eds) New firm creation in the United States: initial explorations with the PSED II data set. Springer, New York, pp 19–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Davis AE, Shaver KG (2012) Understanding gendered variations in business growth intentions across the life course. Entrep Theory Pract 36(3):495–512. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2012.00508.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Diochon M, Menzies TV, Gasse Y (2007) Attributions and success in new venture creation among Canadian nascent entrepreneurs. J Small Bus Entrep 20(4):335–350CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gartner WB, Shaver KG, Carter NM, Reynolds PD (2004) Handbook of entrepreneurial dynamics: the process of business creation. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CAGoogle Scholar
- Gartner WB, Shaver KG, Liao JJ (2008) Opportunities as attributions: categorizing strategic issues from an attributional perspective. Strateg Entrep J 2(4):301–315CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gatewood EJ, Shaver KG, Gartner WB (1995) A longitudinal study of cognitive factors influencing start-up behaviors and success at venture creation. J Bus Vent, 10(5):371–391Google Scholar
- Gatewood EJ (2004) Entrepreneurial expectancies. In: Gartner WB, Shaver KG, Carter NM, Reynolds PD (eds) Handbook of entrepreneurial dynamics: the process of business creation. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp 153–162CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gilbert DT, Malone PS (1995) The correspondence bias. Psychol Bull 117(1):21–38. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.21 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Heider F (1958) The psychology of interpersonal relations. Wiley: New York, NYGoogle Scholar
- Jackson WT, Scott DJ, Schwagler N (2015) Using the business model canvas as a methods approach to teaching entrepreneurial finance. J Entrep Educ 18(2):99–112Google Scholar
- Jenkins AS, Wiklund J, Brundin E (2014) Individual responses to firm failure: appraisals, grief, and the influence of prior failure experience. J Bus Ventur 29(1):17–33. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2012.10.006 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Johnson LL, Danis WM, Dollinger MJ (2004) Decision making (innovator/adaptor) style. In: Gartner WB, Shaver KG, Carter NM, Reynolds PD (eds) Handbook of entrepreneurial dynamics: the process of business creation. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp 171–178CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Jones EE, Davis KE (1965) From acts to dispositions: the attribution process in person perception. In: Berkowitz L (ed) Advances in experimental social psychology, vol 2. Academic Press, New York, pp. 219–266Google Scholar
- Jones EE, Harris VA (1967) The attribution of attitudes. J Exp Soc Psychol 3(1):1–24. doi: 10.1016/0022-1031(67)90034-0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Jones EE, Nisbett RE (1971) The actor and the observer: divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior. General Learning Press, Morristown, NJGoogle Scholar
- Kelley HH (1967) Attribution theory in social psychology. Neb Symp Motiv 15:192–238Google Scholar
- Kelley HH (1972) Causal schemata and the attribution process. In: Jones EE, Kanouse DE, Kelley HH, Nisbett RE, Valins S, Weiner B (eds) Attribution: perceiving the causes of behavior. General Learning Press, Morristown, NY, pp 151–174Google Scholar
- Kelley HH (1973) The processes of causal attribution. Am Psychol 28(2):107–128. doi: 10.1037/h0034225 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Khelil N (2016) The many faces of entrepreneurial failure: insights from an empirical taxonomy. J Bus Ventur 31(1):72–94. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2015.08.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Malle BF (2006) The actor-observer asymmetry in causal attribution: a (surprising) meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 132:895–919CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Malle BF, Knobe J (1997) The folk concept of intentionality. J Exp Soc Psychol 33(2):101–121. doi: 10.1006/jesp.1996.1314 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Mase AS, Cho H, Prokopy LS (2015) Enhancing the Social Amplification of Risk Framework (SARF) by exploring trust, the availability heuristic, and agricultural advisors’ belief in climate change. J Environ Psychol 41:166–176. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.12.004 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Palmer J, Griswold M, Eidson V, Wiewel P (2015) Entrepreneurial intentions of male and female university students. Int J Bus Public Adm 12(1):152–166Google Scholar
- Porter ME (1980) How competitive forces shape strategy. McKinsey Quarterly (2):34–50Google Scholar
- Rauch A, Hulsink W (2015) Putting entrepreneurship education where the intention to act lies: an investigation into the impact of entrepreneurship education on entrepreneurial behavior. Acad Manage Learn Educ 14(2):187–204. doi: 10.5465/amle.2012.0293 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Reynolds PD, Curtin RT (eds) (2009) New firm creation in the United States: initial explorations with the PSED II data set. Springer, New York, NYGoogle Scholar
- Ries E (2011) The lean startup: how today’s entrepreneurs use continuous innovation to create radically successful businesses. Crown Business, New York, NYGoogle Scholar
- Rogoff EG, Myung-Soo L, Dong-Churl S (2004) “Who done it?” attributions by entrepreneurs and experts of the factors that cause and impede small business success. J Small Bus Manag 42(4):364–376. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-627X.2004.00117.x CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rosch EH (1973) Natural categories. Cogn Psychol 4(3):328–350. doi: 10.1016/0010-0285(73)90017-0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ross L (1977) The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: distortions in the attribution process. In: Berkowitz L (ed) Advances in experimental social psychology, vol 10. Academic, New York, NY, pp 174–221Google Scholar
- Rudolph U, Reisenzein R (2008) 50 years of attribution research. Soc Psychol 39(3):123–124. doi: 10.1027/1864-9335.39.3.123 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rumiati RI, Humphreys GW (2015) Cognitive neuroscience goes social. Cortex 70:1–4. doi: 10.1016/j.cortex.2015.07.008 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Scheinberg S, Macmillan IC (1988) An 11-country study of motivations to start a business. In: Kirchhoff BA, Long WA, McMullan WE, Vesper KH, Jr WEW (eds) Frontiers of entrepreneurship research 1988. Babson College, Babson Park, MA, pp 669–687Google Scholar
- Schjoedt L, Shaver KG (2012) Development and validation of a locus of control scale for the entrepreneurship domain. Small Bus Econ 39(3):713–726. doi: 10.1007/s11187-011-9357-0 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shane S, Nicolaou N (2015) Creative personality, opportunity recognition and the tendency to start businesses: a study of their genetic predispositions. J Bus Ventur 30(3):407–419. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.04.001 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shane S, Kolvereid L, Westhead P (1991) An exploratory examination of the reasons leading to new firm formation across country and gender. J Bus Ventur 6(6):431CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shaver KG (1975) An introduction to attribution processes. Winthrop, Cambridge, MAGoogle Scholar
- Shaver KG (1985) The attribution of blame: causality, responsibility, and blameworthiness. Springer, New York, NYCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shaver KG (2004) Attributions and locus of control. In: Gartner WB, Shaver KG, Carter NM, Reynolds PD (eds) Handbook of entrepreneurial dynamics: the process of business creation. Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp 205–213CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shaver KG, Gartner WB, Crosby E, Bakalarova K, Gatewood EJ (2001) Attributions about entrepreneurship: a framework and process for analyzing reasons for starting a business. Entrep Theory Pract 26(2):5–32Google Scholar
- Shaver KG, Blair CA, Davis AE (2014, June) The embedded entrepreneur: gender, family stage, and psychological correlates of start-up success and failure. Paper presented at the Diana International Research Conference, Stockholm, SwedenGoogle Scholar
- Small Business Administration (2014) Frequently asked questions. SBA Office of Advocacy, Washington, DCGoogle Scholar
- Small Business Administration. (2015). Small business facts. https://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/Startup%20Rates.pdf. Retrieved 8 Dec 2015
- Stenholm P, Acs ZJ, Wuebker R (2013) Exploring country-level institutional arrangements on the rate and type of entrepreneurial activity. J Bus Ventur 28(1):176–193. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusvent.2011.11.002 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Storms MD (1973) Videotape and the attribution process: reversing actors’ and observers’ points of view. J Pers Soc Psychol 27(2):165–175. doi: 10.1037/h0034782 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tversky A, Kahneman D (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases. Science 185(4157):1124–1131. doi: 10.1126/science.185.4157.1124 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Weiner B, Heckhausen H, Meyer WU (1972) Causal ascriptions and achievement behavior: a conceptual analysis of effort and reanalysis of locus of control. J Pers Soc Psychol 21(2):239–248. doi: 10.1037/h0032307 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Yasuhiro Y, Peng MW, Deeds DL (2015) Rising from the ashes: cognitive determinants of venture growth after entrepreneurial failure. Entrep Theory Pract 39(2):209–235. doi: 10.1111/etap.12047 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Zacharakis AL, Meyer GD, DeCastro J (1999) Differing perceptions of new venture failure: a matched exploratory study of venture capitalists and entrepreneurs. J Small Bus Manag 37(3):1–14Google Scholar