Matrix-Free Convex Optimization Modeling
Abstract
We introduce a convex optimization modeling framework that transforms a convex optimization problem expressed in a form natural and convenient for the user into an equivalent cone program in a way that preserves fast linear transforms in the original problem. By representing linear functions in the transformation process not as matrices, but as graphs that encode composition of linear operators, we arrive at a matrix-free cone program, i.e., one whose data matrix is represented by a linear operator and its adjoint. This cone program can then be solved by a matrix-free cone solver. By combining the matrix-free modeling framework and cone solver, we obtain a general method for efficiently solving convex optimization problems involving fast linear transforms.
Keywords
Convex optimization Matrix-free optimization Conic programming Optimization modelingNotes
Acknowledgements
We thank Eric Chu, Michal Kočvara, and Alex Aiken for helpful comments on earlier versions of this work, and Chris Fougner, John Miller, Jack Zhu, and Paul Quigley for their work on the POGS cone solver and CVXcanon [88], which both contributed to the implementation of matrix-free CVXPY. We also thank the anonymous reviewers for useful feedback. This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship under Grant No. DGE-114747 and by the DARPA XDATA program.
References
- 1.Abadi, M., Agarwal, A., Barham, P., Brevdo, E., Chen, Z., Citro, C., Corrado, G., Davis, A., Dean, J., Devin, M., Ghemawat, S., Goodfellow, I., Harp, A., Irving, G., Isard, M., Jia, Y., Jozefowicz, R., Kaiser, L., Kudlur, M., Levenberg, J., Mané, D., Monga, R., Moore, S., Murray, D., Olah, C., Schuster, M., Shlens, J., Steiner, B., Sutskever, I., Talwar, K., Tucker, P., Vanhoucke, V., Vasudevan, V., Viégas, F., Vinyals, O., Warden, P., Wattenberg, M., Wicke, M., Yu, Y., Zheng, X.: TensorFlow: large-scale machine learning on heterogeneous systems. (2015) http://tensorflow.org/. Cited 2 March 2016
- 2.Ahmed, N., Natarajan, T., Rao, K.: Discrete cosine transform. IEEE Trans. Comput. C-23 (1), 90–93 (1974)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 3.Aho, A., Lam, M., Sethi, R., Ullman, J.: Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools, 2nd edn. Addison-Wesley Longman, Boston (2006)MATHGoogle Scholar
- 4.Akle, S.: Algorithms for unsymmetric cone optimization and an implementation for problems with the exponential cone. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University (2015)Google Scholar
- 5.Andersen, M., Dahl, J., Liu, Z., Vandenberghe, L.: Interior-point methods for large-scale cone programming. In: Sra, S., Nowozin, S., Wright, S. (eds.) Optimization for Machine Learning, pp. 55–83. MIT Press, Cambridge (2012)Google Scholar
- 6.Andersen, M., Dahl, J., Vandenberghe, L.: CVXOPT: Python software for convex optimization, version 1.1 (2015). http://cvxopt.org/. Cited 2 March 2016
- 7.Bastien, F., Lamblin, P., Pascanu, R., Bergstra, J., Goodfellow, I., Bergeron, A., Bouchard, N., Bengio, Y.: Theano: new features and speed improvements. In: Deep Learning and Unsupervised Feature Learning, Neural Information Processing Systems Workshop (2012)Google Scholar
- 8.Baydin, A., Pearlmutter, B., Radul, A., Siskind, J.: Automatic differentiation in machine learning: a survey. Preprint (2015). http://arxiv.org/abs/1502.05767. Cited 2 March 2016
- 9.Beck, A., Teboulle, M.: Fast gradient-based algorithms for constrained total variation image denoising and deblurring problems. IEEE Trans. Image Process. 18 (11), 2419–2434 (2009)MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 10.Beck, A., Teboulle, M.: A fast iterative shrinkage-thresholding algorithm for linear inverse problems. SIAM J. Imag. Sci. 2 (1), 183–202 (2009)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 11.Becker, S., Candès, E., Grant, M.: Templates for convex cone problems with applications to sparse signal recovery. Math. Program. Comput. 3 (3), 165–218 (2011)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 12.Benson, S., Ye, Y.: Algorithm 875: DSDP5—software for semidefinite programming. ACM Trans. Math. Software 34 (3), (2008)Google Scholar
- 13.Bergstra, J., Breuleux, O., Bastien, F., Lamblin, P., Pascanu, R., Desjardins, G., Turian, J., Warde-Farley, D., Bengio, Y.: Theano: a CPU and GPU math expression compiler. In: Proceedings of the Python for Scientific Computing Conference (2010)Google Scholar
- 14.Börm, S., Grasedyck, L., Hackbusch, W.: Introduction to hierarchical matrices with applications. Eng. Anal. Bound. Elem. 27 (5), 405–422 (2003)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 15.Boyd, S., Parikh, N., Chu, E., Peleato, B., Eckstein, J.: Distributed optimization and statistical learning via the alternating direction method of multipliers. Found. Trends Mach. Learn. 3, 1–122 (2011)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 16.Boyd, S., Vandenberghe, L.: Convex Optimization. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2004)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 17.Bracewell, R.: The fast Hartley transform. In: Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 72, pp. 1010–1018 (1984)Google Scholar
- 18.Brandt, A., McCormick, S., Ruge, J.: Algebraic multigrid (AMG) for sparse matrix equations. In: D. Evans (ed.) Sparsity and its Applications, pp. 257–284. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1985)Google Scholar
- 19.Brélaz, D.: New methods to color the vertices of a graph. Commun. ACM 22 (4), 251–256 (1979)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 20.Candès, E., Demanet, L., Donoho, D., Ying, L.: Fast discrete curvelet transforms. Multiscale Model. Simul. 5 (3), 861–899 (2006)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 21.Carrier, J., Greengard, L., Rokhlin, V.: A fast adaptive multipole algorithm for particle simulations. SIAM J. Sci. Stat. Comput. 9 (4), 669–686 (1988)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 22.Chambolle, A., Pock, T.: A first-order primal-dual algorithm for convex problems with applications to imaging. J. Math. Imaging Vision 40 (1), 120–145 (2011)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 23.Chan, T., Esedoglu, S., Nikolova, M.: Algorithms for finding global minimizers of image segmentation and denoising models. SIAM J. Appl. Math. 66 (5), 1632–1648 (2006)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 24.Chen, S., Donoho, D., Saunders, M.: Atomic decomposition by basis pursuit. SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 20 (1), 33–61 (1998)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 25.Choi, C., Ye, Y.: Solving sparse semidefinite programs using the dual scaling algorithm with an iterative solver. Working paper, Department of Management Sciences, University of Iowa (2000)Google Scholar
- 26.Chu, E., O’Donoghue, B., Parikh, N., Boyd, S.: A primal-dual operator splitting method for conic optimization. Preprint (2013). http://stanford.edu/~boyd/papers/pdf/pdos.pdf. Cited 2 March 2016
- 27.Chu, E., Parikh, N., Domahidi, A., Boyd, S.: Code generation for embedded second-order cone programming. In: Proceedings of the European Control Conference, pp. 1547–1552 (2013)Google Scholar
- 28.Cohen, A., Daubechies, I., Feauveau, J.C.: Biorthogonal bases of compactly supported wavelets. Commun. Pure Appl. Math. 45 (5), 485–560 (1992)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 29.Collobert, R., Kavukcuoglu, K., Farabet, C.: Torch7: a MATLAB-like environment for machine learning. In: BigLearn, Neural Information Processing Systems Workshop (2011)Google Scholar
- 30.Cooley, J., Lewis, P., Welch, P.: The fast Fourier transform and its applications. IEEE Trans. Educ. 12 (1), 27–34 (1969)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 31.Cooley, J., Tukey, J.: An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier series. Math. Comput. 19 (90), 297–301 (1965)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 32.Daubechies, I.: Orthonormal bases of compactly supported wavelets. Commun. Pure Appl. Math. 41 (7), 909–996 (1988)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 33.Daubechies, I.: Ten lectures on wavelets. SIAM, Philadelphia (1992)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 34.Davis, T.: Direct Methods for Sparse Linear Systems (Fundamentals of Algorithms 2). SIAM, Philadelphia (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 35.Diamond, S., Boyd, S.: Convex optimization with abstract linear operators. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 675–683 (2015)Google Scholar
- 36.Diamond, S., Boyd, S.: CVXPY: A Python-embedded modeling language for convex optimization. J. Mach. Learn. Res. 17 (83), 1–5 (2016)MathSciNetMATHGoogle Scholar
- 37.Diamond, S., Boyd, S.: Stochastic matrix-free equilibration. J. Optim. Theory Appl. (2016, to appear)Google Scholar
- 38.Do, M., Vetterli, M.: The finite ridgelet transform for image representation. IEEE Trans. Image Process. 12 (1), 16–28 (2003)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 39.Domahidi, A., Chu, E., Boyd, S.: ECOS: an SOCP solver for embedded systems. In: Proceedings of the European Control Conference, pp. 3071–3076 (2013)Google Scholar
- 40.Dudgeon, D., Mersereau, R.: Multidimensional Digital Signal Processing. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs (1984)MATHGoogle Scholar
- 41.Duff, I., Erisman, A., Reid, J.: Direct Methods for Sparse Matrices. Oxford University Press, New York (1986)MATHGoogle Scholar
- 42.Figueiredo, M., Nowak, R., Wright, S.: Gradient projection for sparse reconstruction: application to compressed sensing and other inverse problems. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process. 1 (4), 586–597 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 43.Fong, D., Saunders, M.: LSMR: an iterative algorithm for sparse least-squares problems. SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 33 (5), 2950–2971 (2011)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 44.Forsyth, D., Ponce, J.: Computer Vision: A Modern Approach. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River (2002)Google Scholar
- 45.Fougner, C., Boyd, S.: Parameter selection and pre-conditioning for a graph form solver. (2015, preprint). http://arxiv.org/pdf/1503.08366v1.pdf. Cited 2 March 2016
- 46.Fountoulakis, K., Gondzio, J., Zhlobich, P.: Matrix-free interior point method for compressed sensing problems. Math. Program. Comput. 6 (1), 1–31 (2013)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 47.Fujisawa, K., Fukuda, M., Kobayashi, K., Kojima, M., Nakata, K., Nakata, M., Yamashita, M.: SDPA (semidefinite programming algorithm) user’s manual – version 7.0.5. Tech. rep. (2008)Google Scholar
- 48.Fukuda, M., Kojima, M., Shida, M.: Lagrangian dual interior-point methods for semidefinite programs. SIAM J. Optim. 12 (4), 1007–1031 (2002)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 49.Gardiner, J., Laub, A., Amato, J., Moler, C.: Solution of the Sylvester matrix equation AXB T + CXD T = E. ACM Trans. Math. Software 18 (2), 223–231 (1992)Google Scholar
- 50.Gilbert, A., Strauss, M., Tropp, J., Vershynin, R.: One sketch for all: fast algorithms for compressed sensing. In: Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, pp. 237–246 (2007)Google Scholar
- 51.Goldstein, T., Osher, S.: The split Bregman method for ℓ 1-regularized problems. SIAM J. Imag. Sci. 2 (2), 323–343 (2009)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 52.Gondzio, J.: Matrix-free interior point method. Comput. Optim. Appl. 51 (2), 457–480 (2012)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 53.Gondzio, J.: Convergence analysis of an inexact feasible interior point method for convex quadratic programming. SIAM J. Optim. 23 (3), 1510–1527 (2013)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 54.Gondzio, J., Grothey, A.: Parallel interior-point solver for structured quadratic programs: application to financial planning problems. Ann. Oper. Res. 152 (1), 319–339 (2007)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 55.Grant, M.: Disciplined convex programming. Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University (2004)Google Scholar
- 56.Grant, M., Boyd, S.: Graph implementations for nonsmooth convex programs. In: Blondel, V., Boyd, S., Kimura, H. (eds.) Recent Advances in Learning and Control. Lecture Notes in Control and Information Sciences, pp. 95–110. Springer, London (2008)Google Scholar
- 57.Grant, M., Boyd, S.: CVX: MATLAB software for disciplined convex programming, version 2.1 (2014). http://cvxr.com/cvx. Cited 2 March 2016
- 58.Grant, M., Boyd, S., Ye, Y.: Disciplined convex programming. In: Liberti, L., Maculan, N. (eds.) Global Optimization: From Theory to Implementation, Nonconvex Optimization and its Applications, pp. 155–210. Springer, New York (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 59.Greengard, L., Rokhlin, V.: A fast algorithm for particle simulations. J. Comput. Phys. 73 (2), 325–348 (1987)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 60.Greengard, L., Strain, J.: The fast Gauss transform. SIAM J. Sci. Stat. Comput. 12 (1), 79–94 (1991)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 61.Griewank, A.: On automatic differentiation. In: Iri, M., Tanabe, K. (eds.) Mathematical Programming: Recent Developments and Applications, pp. 83–108. Kluwer Academic, Tokyo (1989)Google Scholar
- 62.Hackbusch, W.: Multi-Grid Methods and Applications. Springer, Heidelberg (1985)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 63.Hackbusch, W.: A sparse matrix arithmetic based on \(\mathcal{H}\)-matrices. Part I: introduction to \(\mathcal{H}\)-matrices. Computing 62 (2), 89–108 (1999)Google Scholar
- 64.Hackbusch, W., Khoromskij, B., Sauter, S.: On \(\mathcal{H}^{2}\)-matrices. In: Bungartz, H.J., Hoppe, R., Zenger, C. (eds.) Lectures on Applied Mathematics, pp. 9–29. Springer, Heidelberg (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 65.Halldórsson, M.: A still better performance guarantee for approximate graph coloring. Inf. Process. Lett. 45 (1), 19–23 (1993)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 66.Hennenfent, G., Herrmann, F., Saab, R., Yilmaz, O., Pajean, C.: SPOT: a linear operator toolbox, version 1.2 (2014). http://www.cs.ubc.ca/labs/scl/spot/index.html. Cited 2 March 2016
- 67.Hestenes, M., Stiefel, E.: Methods of conjugate gradients for solving linear systems. J. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand. 49 (6), 409–436 (1952)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 68.Hien, L.: Differential properties of Euclidean projection onto power cone. Math. Methods Oper. Res. 82 (3), 265–284 (2015)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 69.Jacques, L., Duval, L., Chaux, C., Peyré, G.: A panorama on multiscale geometric representations, intertwining spatial, directional and frequency selectivity. IEEE Trans. Signal Process. 91 (12), 2699–2730 (2011)Google Scholar
- 70.Jensen, A., la Cour-Harbo, A.: Ripples in Mathematics. Springer, Berlin (2001)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 71.Jia, Y., Shelhamer, E., Donahue, J., Karayev, S., Long, J., Girshick, R., Guadarrama, S., Darrell, T.: Caffe: Convolutional architecture for fast feature embedding. (2014, preprint). http://arxiv.org/abs/1408.5093. Cited 2 March 2016
- 72.Karp, R.: Reducibility among combinatorial problems. In: Miller, R., Thatcher, J., Bohlinger, J. (eds.) Complexity of Computer Computations, The IBM Research Symposia Series, pp. 85–103. Springer, New York (1972)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 73.Kelner, J., Orecchia, L., Sidford, A., Zhu, A.: A simple, combinatorial algorithm for solving SDD systems in nearly-linear time. In: Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, pp. 911–920 (2013)Google Scholar
- 74.Kim, S.J., Koh, K., Lustig, M., Boyd, S., Gorinevsky, D.: An interior-point method for large-scale ℓ 1-regularized least squares. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Signal Process. 1 (4), 606–617 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 75.Koc̆vara, M., Stingl, M.: On the solution of large-scale SDP problems by the modified barrier method using iterative solvers. Math. Program. 120 (1), 285–287 (2009)Google Scholar
- 76.Kovacevic, J., Vetterli, M.: Nonseparable multidimensional perfect reconstruction filter banks and wavelet bases for \(\mathcal{R}^{n}\). IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory 38 (2), 533–555 (1992)MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 77.Krishnaprasad, P., Barakat, R.: A descent approach to a class of inverse problems. J. Comput. Phys. 24 (4), 339–347 (1977)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 78.Lan, G., Lu, Z., Monteiro, R.: Primal-dual first-order methods with O(1∕ε) iteration-complexity for cone programming. Math. Program. 126 (1), 1–29 (2011)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 79.Liberty, E.: Simple and deterministic matrix sketching. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining, pp. 581–588 (2013)Google Scholar
- 80.Lim, J.: Two-dimensional Signal and Image Processing. Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River (1990)Google Scholar
- 81.Lin, Y., Lee, D., Saul, L.: Nonnegative deconvolution for time of arrival estimation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, vol. 2, pp. 377–380 (2004)Google Scholar
- 82.Loan, C.V.: Computational Frameworks for the Fast Fourier Transform. SIAM, Philadelphia (1992)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 83.Lofberg, J.: YALMIP: A toolbox for modeling and optimization in MATLAB. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Computed Aided Control Systems Design, pp. 294–289 (2004)Google Scholar
- 84.Lu, Y., Do, M.: Multidimensional directional filter banks and surfacelets. IEEE Trans. Image Process. 16 (4), 918–931 (2007)MathSciNetCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 85.Mallat, S.: A theory for multiresolution signal decomposition: the wavelet representation. IEEE Trans. Pattern Anal. Mach. Intell. 11 (7), 674–693 (1989)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 86.Martucci, S.: Symmetric convolution and the discrete sine and cosine transforms. IEEE Trans. Signal Process. 42 (5), 1038–1051 (1994)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 87.Mattingley, J., Boyd, S.: CVXGEN: A code generator for embedded convex optimization. Optim. Eng. 13 (1), 1–27 (2012)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 88.Miller, J., Zhu, J., Quigley, P.: CVXcanon, version 0.0.22 (2015). https://github.com/cvxgrp/CVXcanon. Cited 2 March 2016
- 89.MOSEK optimization software, version 7 (2015). https://mosek.com/. Cited 2 March 2016
- 90.Nesterov, Y.: Towards nonsymmetric conic optimization. Optim. Methods Software 27 (4–5), 893–917 (2012)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 91.Nesterov, Y., Nemirovskii, A.: Interior-Point Polynomial Algorithms in Convex Programming. SIAM, Philadelphia (1994)MATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 92.Nesterov, Y., Nemirovsky, A.: Conic formulation of a convex programming problem and duality. Optim. Methods Softw. 1 (2), 95–115 (1992)CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 93.Nocedal, J., Wright, S.: Numerical Optimization. Springer, New York (2006)MATHGoogle Scholar
- 94.O’Donoghue, B., Chu, E., Parikh, N., Boyd, S.: Conic optimization via operator splitting and homogeneous self-dual embedding. J. Optim. Theory Appl. 169 (3), 1042–1068 (2016)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 95.Parikh, N., Boyd, S.: Proximal algorithms. Found. Trends Optim. 1 (3), 123–231 (2014)Google Scholar
- 96.Pock, T., Chambolle, A.: Diagonal preconditioning for first order primal-dual algorithms in convex optimization. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 1762–1769 (2011)Google Scholar
- 97.Pock, T., Cremers, D., Bischof, H., Chambolle, A.: An algorithm for minimizing the Mumford-Shah functional. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, pp. 1133–1140 (2009)Google Scholar
- 98.Ragan-Kelley, J., Barnes, C., Adams, A., Paris, S., Durand, F., Amarasinghe, S.: Halide: A language and compiler for optimizing parallelism, locality, and recomputation in image processing pipelines. In: Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language Design and Implementation, pp. 519–530 (2013)Google Scholar
- 99.Saunders, M., Kim, B., Maes, C., Akle, S., Zahr, M.: PDCO: Primal-dual interior method for convex objectives (2013). http://web.stanford.edu/group/SOL/software/pdco/. Cited 2 March 2016
- 100.Skajaa, A., Ye, Y.: A homogeneous interior-point algorithm for nonsymmetric convex conic optimization. Math. Program. 150 (2), 391–422 (2014)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 101.Spielman, D., Teng, S.H.: Nearly-linear time algorithms for graph partitioning, graph sparsification, and solving linear systems. In: Proceedings of the ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, pp. 81–90 (2004)Google Scholar
- 102.Starck, J.L., Candès, E., Donoho, D.: The curvelet transform for image denoising. IEEE Trans. Image Process. 11 (6), 670–684 (2002)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 103.Sturm, J.: Using SeDuMi 1.02, a MATLAB toolbox for optimization over symmetric cones. Optim. Methods Softw. 11 (1–4), 625–653 (1999)Google Scholar
- 104.Toh, K.C.: Solving large scale semidefinite programs via an iterative solver on the augmented systems. SIAM J. Optim. 14 (3), 670–698 (2004)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 105.Toh, K.C., Todd, M., Tütüncü, R.: SDPT3 — a MATLAB software package for semidefinite programming, version 4.0. Optim. Methods Softw. 11, 545–581 (1999)Google Scholar
- 106.Udell, M., Mohan, K., Zeng, D., Hong, J., Diamond, S., Boyd, S.: Convex optimization in Julia. In: Proceedings of the Workshop for High Performance Technical Computing in Dynamic Languages, pp. 18–28 (2014)Google Scholar
- 107.Vaillant, G.: linop, version 0.7 (2013). http://pythonhosted.org//linop/. Cited 2 March 2016
- 108.van den Berg, E., Friedlander, M.: Probing the Pareto frontier for basis pursuit solutions. SIAM J. Sci. Comput. 31 (2), 890–912 (2009)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 109.Vandenberghe, L., Boyd, S.: A polynomial-time algorithm for determining quadratic Lyapunov functions for nonlinear systems. In: Proceedings of the European Conference on Circuit Theory and Design, pp. 1065–1068 (1993)Google Scholar
- 110.Vandenberghe, L., Boyd, S.: A primal-dual potential reduction method for problems involving matrix inequalities. Math. Program. 69 (1–3), 205–236 (1995)MathSciNetMATHGoogle Scholar
- 111.Vishnoi, K.: Laplacian solvers and their algorithmic applications. Theor. Comput. Sci. 8 (1–2), 1–141 (2012)MathSciNetMATHGoogle Scholar
- 112.Wright, S.: Primal-Dual Interior-Point Methods. SIAM, Philadelphia (1987)MATHGoogle Scholar
- 113.Yang, C., Duraiswami, R., Davis, L.: Efficient kernel machines using the improved fast Gauss transform. In: Saul, L., Weiss, Y., Bottou, L. (eds.) Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 17, pp. 1561–1568. MIT Press, Cambridge (2005)Google Scholar
- 114.Yang, C., Duraiswami, R., Gumerov, N., Davis, L.: Improved fast Gauss transform and efficient kernel density estimation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, vol. 1, pp. 664–671 (2003)Google Scholar
- 115.Ye, Y.: Interior Point Algorithms: Theory and Analysis. Wiley-Interscience, New York (2011)Google Scholar
- 116.Ying, L., Demanet, L., Candès, E.: 3D discrete curvelet transform. In: Proceedings of SPIE: Wavelets XI, vol. 5914, pp. 351–361 (2005)Google Scholar
- 117.Zach, C., Pock, T., Bischof, H.: A duality based approach for realtime TV-ℓ 1 optical flow. In: Hamprecht, F., Schnörr, C., Jähne, B. (eds.) Pattern Recognition. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 4713, pp. 214–223. Springer, Heidelberg (2007)Google Scholar
- 118.Zhao, X.Y., Sun, D., Toh, K.C.: A Newton-CG augmented Lagrangian method for semidefinite programming. SIAM J. Optim. 20 (4), 1737–1765 (2010)MathSciNetMATHCrossRefGoogle Scholar