The Putative Role of Measles Virus in the Pathogenesis of Otosclerosis

Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

The main goal of this report is to review our current knowledge about the etiopathogenesis of otosclerotic bone remodeling disorder focusing on measles virus infection. Otosclerosis is a disease of pathologically increased bone turnover of the human otic capsule; however, the etiopathogenesis remained unclear. Persisting measles virus infection, genetic predisposition, disturbed bone metabolism, inflammatory processes, autoimmunity, and hormonal and environmental factors also may play contributing roles in the pathogenesis of otosclerosis. In the future, prospective studies based on comprehensive histopathologic, molecular biologic, and genetic analysis are necessary to get further information about the background of disease in order to clarify the role of measles in the etiopathogenesis and to find the most promising treatment option.

Keywords

Etiopathogenesis Genetics Inflammation Measles virus Otosclerosis 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

References

  1. 1.
    Chole RA, McKenna M. Pathophysiology of otosclerosis. Otol Neurotol. 2001;22:249–57.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Karosi T, Szekanecz Z, Sziklai I. Otosclerosis: an autoimmune disease? Autoimmun Rev. 2009;9:95–101.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Yoo TJ. Etiopathogenesis of otosclerosis: a hypothesis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1984;93:28–33.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    McKenna MJ, Kristiansen AG. Molecular biology of otosclerosis. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;65:68–74.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Wang PC, Merchant SN, McKenna MJ, Glynn RJ, Nadol Jr JB. Does otosclerosis occur only in the temporal bone? Am J Otol. 1999;20:162–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Declau F, Van Spaendonck M, Timmermans JP, Michaels L, Liang J, Qiu JP, Van de Heyning P. Prevalence of otosclerosis in an unselected series of temporal bones. Otol Neurotol. 2001;22:596–602.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Gros A, Vatovec J, Sereg-Bahar M. Histologic changes on stapedial footplate in otosclerosis. Correlations between histologic activity and clinical findings. Otol Neurotol. 2003;24:43–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Stankovic KM, McKenna MJ. Current research in otosclerosis. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;14:347–51.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Sziklai I. Human otosclerotic bone-derived peptide decreases the gain of the electromotility in isolated outer hair cells. Hear Res. 1996;95:100–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Sziklai I, Batta TJ, Karosi T. Otosclerosis: an organ-specific inflammatory disease with sensorineural hearing loss. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2009;266:1711–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Michaels L. The temporal bone: an organ in search of a histopathology. Histopathology. 1991;18:391–4.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Niedermeyer HP, Arnold W. Etiopathogenesis of otosclerosis. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2002;64:114–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Cureoglu S, Schachern PA, Ferlito A, Rinaldo A, Tsuprun V, Paparella MM. Otosclerosis: etiopathogenesis and histopathology. Am J Otolaryngol. 2006;27:334–40.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Arnold W, Niedermeyer HP, Lehn N, Neubert W, Höfler H. Measles virus in otosclerosis and the specific immune response of the inner ear. Acta Otolaryngol. 1996;116:705–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Niedermeyer HP, Arnold W. Otosclerosis: a measles virus associated inflammatory disease. Acta Otolaryngol. 1995;115:300–3.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Karosi T, Jókay I, Kónya J, Szabó LZ, Pytel J, Jóri J, Szalmás A, Sziklai I. Detection of osteoprotegerin and TNF-alpha mRNA in ankylotic Stapes footplates in connection with measles virus positivity. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:1427–33.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Karosi T, Kónya J, Szabó LZ, Pytel J, Jóri J, Szalmás A, Sziklai I. Codetection of measles virus and tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA in otosclerotic stapes footplates. Laryngoscope. 2005;115:1291–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Valsalva A. De aurae humana tractatus. Venetiis. Joanne Baptista Margagnus. 1740.Google Scholar
  19. 19.
    Politzer A. Über primare erkrankung der knöchernen labyrinthkapsel. Z Ohrenheilk. 1894;25:309–27.Google Scholar
  20. 20.
    Guild SR. Histologic otosclerosis. Ann Otol. 1947;24:246–66.Google Scholar
  21. 21.
    Dahlqvist A, Diamant H, Dahlqvist SR, Cedergren B. HLA antigens in patients with otosclerosis. Acta Otolaryngol. 1985;100:33–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Miyazawa T, Tago C, Ueda H, Niwa H, Yanagita N. HLA associations in otosclerosis in Japanese patients. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1996;253:501–3.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Bernstein JM, Shanahan TC, Schaffer FM. Further observations on the role of the MHC genes and certain hearing disorders. Acta Otolaryngol. 1996;116:666–71.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Sølvsten Sørensen M, Nielsen LP, Bretlau P, Jørgensen MB. The role of type II collagen autoimmunity in otosclerosis revisited. Acta Otolaryngol. 1988;105:242–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Joliat T, Seyer J, Bernstein J, Krug M, Ye XJ, Cho JS, Fujiyoshi T, Yoo TJ. Antibodies against a 30 kilodalton cochlear protein and type II and IX collagens in the serum of patients with inner ear diseases. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1992;101:1000–6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Bujía J, Alsalameh S, Jerez R, Sittinger M, Wilmes E, Burmester G. Antibodies to the minor cartilage collagen type IX in otosclerosis. Am J Otol. 1994;15:222–4.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Helfgott SM, Mosciscki RA, San Martin J, Lorenzo C, Kieval R, McKenna M, Nadol J, Trentham DE. Correlation between antibodies to type II collagen and treatment outcome in bilateral progressive sensorineural hearing loss. Lancet. 1991;337:387–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Yoo TJ, Shea Jr JJ, Floyd RA. Enchondral cartilage rests collagen-induced autoimmunity: a possible pathogenetic mechanism of otosclerosis. Am J Otolaryngol. 1987;8:317–24.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Harris JP, Woolf NK, Ryan AF. A reexamination of experimental type II collagen autoimmunity: middle and inner ear morphology and function. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1986;95:176–80.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Jesić S, Radulović R, Arsović N. Altered immunoregulations in otosclerosis: presence of autoantibodies in otosclerotic sera samples. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 1997;254 Suppl 1:S50–2.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Iyer PV, Gristwood RE. Histopathology of the stapes in otosclerosis. Pathology. 1984;16:30–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Linthicum Jr FH. Histopathology of otosclerosis. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 1993;26:335–52.Google Scholar
  33. 33.
    Schuknecht HF, Barber W. Histologic variants in otosclerosis. Laryngoscope. 1985;95:1307–17.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Karosi T, Kónya J, Petkó M, Szabó LZ, Pytel J, Jóri J, Sziklai I. Two subgroups of stapes fixation: otosclerosis and pseudo-otosclerosis. Laryngoscope. 2005;115:1968–73.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Karosi T, Kónya J, Petkó M, Sziklai I. Histologic otosclerosis is associated with the presence of measles virus in the stapes footplate. Otol Neurotol. 2005;26:1128–33.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Karosi T, Csomor P, Petkó M, Liktor B, Szabó LZ, Pytel J, Jóri J, Sziklai I. Histopathology of nonotosclerotic stapes fixations. Otol Neurotol. 2009;30:1058–66.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Arnold W, Friedmann I. Otosclerosis – an inflammatory disease of the otic capsule of viral aetiology? J Laryngol Otol. 1988;102:865–71.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    McKenna MJ, Mills BG. Ultrastructural and immunohistochemical evidence of measles virus in active otosclerosis. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 1990;470:130–40.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Niedermeyer HP, Arnold W, Schuster M, Baumann C, Kramer J, Neubert WJ, Sedlmeier R. Persistent measles virus infection and otosclerosis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 2001;110:897–903.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Horner KC. The effect of sex hormones on bone metabolism of the otic capsule – an overview. Hear Res. 2009;252:56–60.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Clayton AE, Mikulec AA, Mikulec KH, Merchant SN, McKenna MJ. Association between osteoporosis and otosclerosis in women. J Laryngol Otol. 2004;118:617–21.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Ealy M, Chen W, Ryu GY, Yoon JG, Welling DB, Hansen M, Madan A, Smith RJ. Gene expression analysis of human otosclerotic stapedial footplates. Hear Res. 2008;240:80–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Chevance LG, Bretlau P, Jorgensen MB, Causse J. Otosclerosis. An electron microscopic and cytochemical study. Acta Otolaryngol (Stockh) Suppl. 1970;272:1–44.Google Scholar
  44. 44.
    Zehnder AF, Kristiansen AG, Adams JC, Kujawa SG, Merchant SN, McKenna MJ. Osteoprotegrin knockout mice demonstrate abnormal remodeling of the otic capsule and progressive hearing loss. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:201–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Arnold W. Some remarks on the histopathology of otosclerosis. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;65:25–30.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Moscicki RA, San Martin JE, Quintero CH, Rauch SD, Nadol JB, Bloch KJ. Serum antibody to inner ear proteins in patients with progressive hearing loss. Correlation with disease activity and response to corticosteroid treatment. JAMA. 1994;272:611–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Karosi T, Csomor P, Sziklai I. The value of HRCT in stapes fixations corresponding to hearing thresholds and histologic findings. Otol Neurotol. 2012;33:1300–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Marx M, Lagleyre S, Escudé B, Demeslay J, Elhadi T, Deguine O, Fraysse B. Correlations between CT scan findings and hearing thresholds in otosclerosis. Acta Otolaryngol. 2011;131:351–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Brookler K. Basis for understanding otic capsule bony dyscrasias. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:160–1.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Mannel DN, Echtenacher B. TNF in the inflammatory response. Chem Immunol. 2000;74:141–61.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Locksley RM, Killeen N, Lenardo MJ. The TNF and TNF receptor superfamilies: integrating mammalian biology. Cell. 2001;104:487–501.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Wajant H, Pfizenmaier K, Scheurich P. Tumor necrosis factor signaling. Cell Death Differ. 2003;10(1):45–65.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Theoleyre S, Wittrant Y, Tat SK, Fortun Y, Redini F, Heymann D. The molecular triad OPG/RANK/RANKL: involvement in the orchestration of pathophysiological bone remodelling. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev. 2004;15(6):457–75.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Thys M, Schrauwen I, Vanderstraeten K, Dieltjens N, Fransen E, Ealy M, Cremers CW, van de Heyning P, Vincent R, Offeciers E, Smith RH, van Camp G. Detection of rare nonsynonymous variants in TGFB1 in otosclerosis patients. Ann Hum Genet. 2009;73:171–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Bodo M, Venti G, Baroni T, Bellucci C, Giammarioli M, Donti E, Paludetti G, Stabellini G, Carinci P. Phenotype of in vitro human otosclerotic cells and its modulation by TGF beta. Cell Mol Biol (Noisy-le-grand). 1995;41:1039–49.Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    Schrauwen I, Thys M, Vanderstraeten K, Fransen E, Dieltjens N, Huyghe JR, Ealy M, Claustres M, Cremers CR, Dhooge I, Declau F, Van de Heyning P, Vincent R, Somers T, Offeciers E, Smith RJ, Van Camp G. Association of bone morphogenetic proteins with otosclerosis. J Bone Miner Res. 2008;23:507–16.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Lehnerdt G, Metz KA, Trellakis S, Jahnke K, Neumann A. Signaling by way of type IB and II bone morphogenetic protein receptors regulates bone formation in otospongiosis. Laryngoscope. 2007;117:812–6. Erratum in: Laryngoscope. 2007; 117:1510.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Lehnerdt G, Unkel C, Metz KA, Jahnke K, Neumann A. Immunohistochemical evidence of BMP-2, -4 and -7 activity in otospongiosis. Acta Otolaryngol. 2008;128:13–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Csomor P, Liktor B, Liktor B, Szekanecz Z, Sziklai I, Karosi T. Expression of bone morphogenetic protein 2, 4, 5, and 7 correlates with histological activity of otosclerotic foci. Acta Otolaryngol. 2012;132:624–31.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Karosi T, Csomor P, Szalmás A, Kónya J, Petkó M, Sziklai I. Osteoprotegerin expression and sensitivity in otosclerosis with different histological activity. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2011;268:357–65.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Csomor P, Sziklai I, Liktor B, Szabó L, Pytel J, Jóri J, Karosi T. Otosclerosis: disturbed balance between cell survival and apoptosis. Otol Neurotol. 2010;31:867–74.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Grayeli AB, Escoubet B, Bichara M, Julien N, Silve C, Friedlander G, Sterkers O, Ferrary E. Increased activity of the diastrophic dysplasia sulfate transporter in otosclerosis and its inhibition by sodium fluoride. Otol Neurotol. 2003;24:854–62.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Imauchi Y, Lombès M, Lainé P, Sterkers O, Ferrary E, Grayeli AB. Glucocorticoids inhibit diastrophic dysplasia sulfate transporter activity in otosclerosis by interleukin-6. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:1647–50.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Grayeli AB, Sterkers O, Roulleau P, Elbaz P, Ferrary E, Silve C. Parathyroid hormone-parathyroid hormone-related peptide receptor expression and function in otosclerosis. Am J Physiol. 1999;277:1005–12.Google Scholar
  65. 65.
    Fanó G, Venti-Donti G, Belia S, Paludetti G, Antonica A, Donti E, Maurizi M. PTH induces modification of transductive events in otosclerotic bone cell cultures. Cell Biochem Funct. 1993;11:257–61.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Takayanagi H. Osteoimmunology: shared mechanisms and crosstalk between the immune and bone systems. Nat Rev Immunol. 2007;7:292–304.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Sørensen MS, Frisch T, Bretlau P. Dynamic bone studies of the labyrinthine capsule in relation to otosclerosis. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;65:53–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Frisch T, Bretlau P, Sorensen MS. Intravital microlesions in the human otic capsule. Detection, classification and pathogenetic significance revisited. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2008;70:195–201.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Frisch T, Sørensen MS, Overgaard S, Bretlau P. Predilection of otosclerotic foci related to the bone turnover in the otic capsule. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 2000;543:111–3.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Wittrant Y, Theoleyre S, Chipoy C, Padrines M, Blanchard F, Heymann D, Redini F. RANKL/RANK/OPG: new therapeutic targets in bone tumours and associated osteolysis. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2004;1704:49–57.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Karosi T, Jókay I, Kónya J, Petkó M, Szabó LZ, Pytel J, Jóri J, Sziklai I. Activated osteoclasts with CD51/61 expression in otosclerosis. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:1478–84.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Ye SN, Yi ZX, Wang PY, Jiang SC. The role and significance of chondroitin sulfate in the development of otosclerosis. Laryngoscope. 1995;105:1005–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Niedermeyer HP, Becker ET, Arnold W. Expression of collagens in the otosclerotic bone. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;65:45–9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Karosi T, Jokay I, Konya J, Petko M, Szabo LZ, Sziklai I. Expression of measles virus receptors in otosclerotic, non-otosclerotic and in normal stapes footplates. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;264:607–13.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Karosi T, Szalmas A, Csomor P, Konya J, Petko M, Sziklai I. Disease-associated novel CD46 splicing variants and pathologic bone remodeling in otosclerosis. Laryngoscope. 2008;118:1669–76.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Moumoulidis I, Axon P, Baguley D, Reid E. A review on the genetics of otosclerosis. Clin Otolaryngol. 2007;32:239–47.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Norrby E, Oxman MN. Measles virus. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, editors. Fields virology. New York: Raven; 1990. p. 1013–44.Google Scholar
  78. 78.
    Niedermeyer HP, Arnold W, Neubert WJ, Sedlmeier R. Persistent measles virus infection as a possible cause of otosclerosis: state of the art. Ear Nose Throat J. 2000;79:552–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Altermatt HJ, Gerber HA, Gaeng D, Müller C, Arnold W. Immunohistochemical findings in otosclerotic lesions. HNO. 1990;40:476–9.Google Scholar
  80. 80.
    Arnold W, Altermatt HJ, Kraft R, Pfaltz CR. Die Otosklerose, eine durch Paramyxoviren unterhaltene Entzündunsreaktion. HNO. 1989;37:236–41.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Arnold W, Friedmann I. Immunohistochemistry of otosclerosis. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl. 1990;470:124–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Arnold W, Busch R, Arnold A, Ritscher B, Neiss A, Niedermeyer HP. The influence of measles vaccination on the incidence of otosclerosis in Germany. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;264:741–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Altermatt HJ, Gerber HA, Gaeng D, Müller C, Arnold W. Immunohistochemical findings in otosclerotic lesions. HNO. 1992;40:476–9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Schrader M, Poppendieck J, Weber B. Immunohistologic findings in otosclerosis. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1990;99:349–52.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    McKenna MJ, Mills BG. Immunohistochemical evidence of measles virus antigens in active otosclerosis. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1989;101:415–21.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Lolov SR, Encheva VI, Kyurkchiev SD, Edrev GE, Kehayov IR. Antimeasles immunoglobulin G in sera of patients with otosclerosis is lower than that in healthy people. Otol Neurotol. 2001;22:766–70.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Karosi T, Kónya J, Petkó M, Szabó LZ, Pytel J, Jóri J, Sziklai I. Antimeasles IgG for serologic diagnosis of otosclerotic hearing loss. Laryngoscope. 2006;116:488–93.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    McKenna MJ, Kristiansen AG, Haines J. Polymerase chain reaction amplification of a measles virus sequence from human temporal bone sections with active otosclerosis. Am J Otol. 1996;17:827–30.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Karosi T, Kónya J, Szabó LZ, Sziklai I. Measles virus prevalence in otosclerotic stapes footplate samples. Otol Neurotol. 2004;25:451–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Gantumur T, Niedermeyer HP, Neubert WJ, Arnold W. Molecular detection of measles virus in primary cell cultures of otosclerotic tissue. Acta Otolaryngol. 2006;126:811–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Grayeli AB, Palmer P, Tran Ba Huy P, Soudant J, Sterkers O, Lebon P, Ferrary E. No evidence of measles virus in stapes samples from patients with otosclerosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:2655–60.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Dhiman N, Jacobson RM, Poland GA. Measles virus receptors: SLAM and CD46. Rev Med Virol. 2004;14:217–29.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Erlenhofer C, Duprex WP, Rima BK, ter Meulen V, Schneider-Schaulies J. Analysis of receptor (CD46, CD150) usage by measles virus. J Gen Virol. 2002;83:1431–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Manchester M, Naniche D, Stehle T. CD46 as a measles receptor: form follows function. Virology. 2000;274:5–10.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Liszewski MK, Kemper C, Price JD, Atkinson JP. Emerging roles and new functions of CD46. Springer Semin Immunopathol. 2005;27:345–58.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Riley-Vargas RC, Gill DB, Kemper C, Liszewski MK, Atkinson JP. CD46: expanding beyond complement regulation. Trends Immunol. 2004;25:496–503.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Zaffran Y, Destaing O, Roux A, Ory S, Nheu T, Jurdic P, Rabourdin-Combe C, Astier AL. CD46/CD3 costimulation induces morphological changes of human T cells and activation of Vav, Rac and extracellular signal-regulated kinase mitogen–activated protein kinase. J Immunol. 2001;167:6780–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Astier A, Trescol-Biemont MC, Azocar O, Lamouille B, Rabourdin-Combe C. Cutting edge: CD46, a new costimulatory molecular for T cells that induces p120CBL and LAT phosphorylation. J Immunol. 2000;164:6091–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Kemper C, Chan AC, Green JM, Brett KA, Murphy KM, Atkinson JP. Activation of human CD4+ cells with CD3 and CD46 induces a T-regulatory cell 1 phenotype. Nature. 2003;421:388–92.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Karp CL, Wysocka M, Wahl LM, Ahearn JM, Cuomo PJ, Sherry B, Trinchieri G, Griffin DE. Mechanism of suppression of cell-mediated immunity by measles virus. Science. 1996;273:228–31.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Kurita-Taniguchi M, Fukui A, Hazeki K, Hirano A, Tsuji S, Matsumoto M, Watanabe M, Ueda S, Seya T. Functional modulation of human macrophages through CD46 (measles virus receptor): production of IL-12 p40 and nitric oxide in association with recruitment of protein-tyrosine phosphatase SHP-1 to CD46. J Immunol. 2000;165:5143–52.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Kawano M, Seya T, Koni I, Mabuchi H. Elevated serum levels of soluble membrane cofactor protein (CD46, MCP) in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Clin Exp Immunol. 1999;116:542–6.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Kroshus TJ, Salerno CT, Yeh CG, Higgins PJ, Bolman 3rd RM, Dalmasso AP. A recombinant soluble chimeric complement inhibitor composed of human CD46 and CD55 reduces acute cardiac tissue injury in models of pig-to-human heart transplantation. Transplantation. 2000;69:2282–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Lanteri MB, Powell MS, Christiansen D, Li YQ, Hogarth M, Sandrin MS, McKenzie IF, Loveland BE. Inhibition of hyperacute transplant rejection by soluble proteins with the functional domains of CD46 and FcgammaRII. Transplantation. 2000;69:1128–36.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Avota E, Gassert E, Schneider-Saulines S. Measles virus-induced immunosuppression: from effectors to mechanisms. Med Microbiol Immunol. 2010;199:227–37.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Tomek MS, Brown MR, Mani SR, Ramesh A, Srisailapathy CR, Coucke P, Zbar RI, Bell AM, McGuirt WT, Fukushima K, Willems PJ, Van Camp G, Smith RJ. Localization of a gene for otosclerosis to chromosome 15q25-q26. Hum Mol Genet. 1998;7:285–90.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Thys M, Van Den Bogaert K, Iliadou V, Vanderstraeten K, Dieltjens N, Schrauwen I, Chen W, Eleftheriades N, Grigoriadou M, Pauw RJ, Cremers CR, Smith RJ, Petersen MB, Van Camp G. A seventh locus for otosclerosis, OTSC7, maps to chromosome 6q13-16.1. Eur J Hum Genet. 2007;15:362–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Van Den Bogaert K, De Leenheer EM, Chen W, Lee Y, Nürnberg P, Pennings RJ, Vanderstraeten K, Thys M, Cremers CW, Smith RJ, Van Camp G. A fifth locus for otosclerosis, OTSC5, maps to chromosome 3q22-24. J Med Genet. 2004;41:450–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Van Den Bogaert K, Govaerts PJ, De Leenheer EM, Schatteman I, Verstreken M, Chen W, Declau F, Cremers CW, Van De Heyning PH, Offeciers FE, Somers T, Smith RJ, Van Camp G. Otosclerosis: a genetically heterogeneous disease involving at least three different genes. Bone. 2002;30:624–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Van Den Bogaert K, Govaerts PJ, Schatteman I, Brown MR, Caethoven G, Offeciers FE, Somers T, Declau F, Coucke P, Van de Heyning P, Smith RJ, Van Camp G. A second gene for otosclerosis, OTSC2, maps to chromosome 7q34-36. Am J Hum Genet. 2001;68:495–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Bel Hadj Ali I, Thys M, Beltaief N, Schrauwen I, Hilgert N, Vanderstraeten K, Dieltjens N, Mnif E, Hachicha S, Besbes G, Ben Arab S, Van Camp G. A new locus for otosclerosis, OTSC8, maps to the pericentromeric region of chromosome 9. Hum Genet. 2008;123:267–72.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Brownstein Z, Goldfarb A, Levi H, Frydman M, Avraham KB. Chromosomal mapping and phenotypic characterization of hereditary otosclerosis linked to the OTSC4 locus. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2006;132:416–24.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    McKenna MJ, Kristiansen AG, Bartley ML, Rogus JJ, Haines JL. Association of COL1A1 and otosclerosis: evidence for a shared genetic etiology with mild osteogenesis imperfecta. Am J Otol. 1998;19:604–10.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    McKenna MJ, Nguyen-Huynh AT, Kristiansen AG. Association of otosclerosis with Sp1 binding site polymorphism in COL1A1 gene: evidence for a shared genetic etiology with osteoporosis. Otol Neurotol. 2004;25:447–50.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Rodríguez L, Rodríguez S, Hermida J, Frade C, Sande E, Visedo G, Martín C, Zapata C. Proposed association between the COL1A1 and COL1A2 genes and otosclerosis is not supported by a case-control study in Spain. Am J Med Genet A. 2004;128:19–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Thys M, Schrauwen I, Vanderstraeten K, Janssens K, Dieltjens N, Van Den Bogaert K, Fransen E, Chen W, Ealy M, Claustres M, Cremers CR, Dhooge I, Declau F, Claes J, Van de Heyning P, Vincent R, Somers T, Offeciers E, Smith RJ, Van Camp G. The coding polymorphism T263I in TGF-beta1 is associated with otosclerosis in two independent populations. Hum Mol Genet. 2007;16:2021–30.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    Schrauwen I, Ealy M, Huentelman MJ, Thys M, Homer N, Vanderstraeten K, Fransen E, Corneveaux JJ, Craig DW, Claustres M, Cremers CW, Dhooge I, Van de Heyning P, Vincent R, Offeciers E, Smith RJ, Van Camp G. A genome-wide analysis identifies genetic variants in the RELN gene associated with otosclerosis. Am J Hum Genet. 2009;84:328–38.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    Schett G, Zwerina J, David JP. The role of Wnt proteins in arthritis. Nat Clin Pract Rheumatol. 2008;4(9):473–80.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Diarra D, Stolina M, Polzer K, Zwerina J, Ominsky MS, Dwyer D, et al. Dickkopf-1 is a master regulator of joint remodeling. Nat Med. 2007;13:156–63.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Chai R, Xia A, Wang T, Jan TA, Hayashi T, Bermingham-McDonogh O, et al. Dynamic expression of Lgr5, a Wnt target gene, in the developing and mature mouse cochlea. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol. 2011;12:455–69.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Sienknecht UJ, Fekete DM. Mapping of Wnt, frizzled, and Wnt inhibitor gene expression domains in the avian otic primordium. J Comp Neurol. 2009;517:751–64.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. 122.
    Hawkins RD, Bashiardes S, Powder KE, Sajan SA, Bhonagiri V, Alvarado DM, et al. Large scale gene expression profiles of regenerating inner ear sensory epithelia. PLoS ONE. 2007;2, e525.PubMedPubMedCentralCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Matsuda M, Keino H. Roles of beta-catenin in inner ear development in rat embryos. Anat Embryol (Berl). 2000;202:39–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Hamersma H, Hofmeyr L. Too much bone: the middle ear in sclerosing bone dysplasias. Adv Otorhinolaryngol. 2007;65:61–7.PubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck SurgeryB-A-Z County Hospital and University HospitalMiskolcHungary
  2. 2.Department of Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery, Clinical CenterUniversity of DebrecenDebrecenHungary

Personalised recommendations