Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Leishmaniasis

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Neglected Tropical Diseases - Sub-Saharan Africa

Part of the book series: Neglected Tropical Diseases ((NTD))

Abstract

Visceral leishmaniasis is widespread in East Africa with several foci in Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Uganda. Outside this subregion, sporadic cases have been reported from Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, and the Gambia. It causes frequent outbreaks in the savanna and forest areas where sand flies live around termite mounds and in soil cracks. Cutaneous leishmaniasis occurs throughout western and eastern Africa. A belt runs from Mauritania, Senegal, Burkina Faso, and Mali in the West, through Niger, Nigeria, and Cameroon, to Chad, Sudan, and Ethiopia in the East. Though their recognition as public health problem is growing, the leishmaniases remain one of the most neglected tropical diseases. Their control is still hampered by a lack of safe and efficacious drugs, easy diagnostics and effective vaccine, and vector control tools, especially so in sub-Saharan Africa.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abubakar A, Ruiz-Postigo JA, Pita J, Lado M, Ben-Ismael R et al (2014) Visceral leishmaniasis outbreak in south Sudan 2009–2012: epidemiological assessment and impact of a multisectoral response. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(3):e2720. doi:10.1371/journal.ontd.0002720

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ali A and Ashford RW (1994) Visceral leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. IV. Prevalence, incidence and relation of infection to disease in an endemic area. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 88(3):289–293

    Google Scholar 

  • Alvar J, Bashaye S, Argaw D, Cruz I, Aparicio P, Kassa A et al (2007) Kala-azar outbreak in Libo Kemkem, Ethiopia: epidemiologic and parasitologic assessment. Am J Trop Med Hyg 77(2):275–282

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alvar J, Aparicio P, Aseffa A, Den Boer M, Canavate C, Dedet JP et al (2008) The relationship between leishmaniasis and AIDS: the second 10 years. Clin Microbiol Rev 21(2):334–359

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Alvar J, Velez ID, Bern C, Herrero M, Desjeux P, Cano J, Jannin J et al (2012) Leishmaniasis worldwide and global estimates of its incidence. PLoS One 7(5):e35671. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035671

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Antinori S, Longhi E, Bestetti G, Piolini R, Acquaviva V, Foschi A et al (2007) Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis as an immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Br J Dermatol 157(5):1032–1036

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ayele T, Ali A (1984) The distribution of visceral leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 33(4):548–552

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Babiker ZO, Davidson R, Mazinda C, Kipngetich S, Ritmeijer K (2007) Utility of lymph node aspiration in the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in Sudan. Am J Trop Med Hyg 76(4):689–693

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Balkew M, Hailu A, Berhe N, Gemetchu T (1999) Leishmaniasis in the lower Omo plains, southwest Ethiopia: the sand fly fauna. Ethiop Med J 37:31–40

    Google Scholar 

  • Bamba S, Gouba A, Drabo MK, Nezien D, Bougoum M, Guiguemdé TR (2013) Epidemiological profile of cutaneous leishmaniasis: retrospective analysis of 7444 cases reported from 1999 to 2005 at Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso. Pan Afr Med J 14:108. doi:10.11604/pamj.2013.14.108.1140

    Google Scholar 

  • Baruffa G (1965) Kala-azar among the nomads of the middle Webi shebeli region; first report of a confirmed endemic source of kala-azar in Somalia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 59(6):705–708

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bashaye S, Nombela N, Argaw D, Mulugeta A, Herrero M, Nieto J et al (2009) Risk factors for visceral leishmaniasis in a new epidemic site in Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81(1):34–39

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belay AD, Asafa Y, Mesure J, Davidson RN (2006) Successful miltefosine treatment of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis occurring during antiretroviral therapy. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 100(3):223–227

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Belo VS, Struchiner CJ, Barbosa DS, Nascimento BW, Horta MA, da Silva ES, Werneck GL (2014) Risk factors for adverse prognosis and death in American visceral leishmaniasis: a meta-analysis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(7):e2982. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002982

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Boelaert M, Meheus F, Sanchez A, Singh SP, Vanlerberghe V, Picado A, Meessen B, Sundar S (2009) The poorest of the poor: a poverty appraisal of households affected by visceral leishmaniasis in Bihar, India. Trop Med Int Health 14(6):639–644

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boelaert M, Verdonck K, Menten J, Sunyoto T, van Griensven J, Chappuis F, Rijal S (2014) Rapid tests for the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in patients with suspected disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 6:CD009135. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009135.pub2

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boumis E, Chinello P, Della Rocca C, Paglia MG, Proietti MF, Petrosillo N (2006) Atypical disseminated leishmaniasis resembling post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in an HIV-infected patient. Int J STD AIDS 17(5):351–353

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Celesia BM, Cacopardo B, Massimino D, Gussio M, Tosto S, Nunnari G, Pinzone MR (2014) Atypical presentation of PKDL due to Leishmania infantum in an HIV-infected patient with relapsing visceral leishmaniasis. Case Rep Infect Dis 2014:370286. doi:10.1155/2014/370286

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cota GF, de Sousa MR, de Mendoca AL, Patrocinio A, Assuncao LS, de Faria SR, Rabello A (2014) Leishmania-HIV co-infection: clinical presentation and outcomes in an urban area in Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(4):e2816. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002816

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • de Beer P, el Harith A, Deng LL, Semiao-Santos SJ, Chantel B and van Grootheest M. (1991) A killing disease epidemic among displaced Sudanese population identified as visceral leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 44(3):283–289

    Google Scholar 

  • Dereure J, El-Safi SH, Bucheton B, Boni M, Kheir MM, Davoust B et al (2003) Visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan: parasite identification in humans and dogs; host-parasite relationships. Microbes Infect 5(12):1103–1108

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Diro E, Lynen L, Ritmeijer K, Boelaert M, Hailu A (2014) Visceral leishmaniasis and HIV coinfection in east Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(6):e2869. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002869

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • El Hassan AM, Khalil EA, el Sheikh EA, Zijlstra EE, Osman A, Ibrahim ME (1998) Post kala-azar ocular leishmaniasis. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 92(2):177–179

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elnaiem DE (2011) Ecology and control of the sand fly vectors of Leishmania donovani in east Africa, with special emphasis of Phlebotomus orientalis. J Vector Ecol 36(Suppl 1):S23–S31. doi:10.1111/j.1948-7134.2011.00109.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elnaiem DA, Ward RD, Hassan HK, Miles MA, Frame IA (1998) Infection rates of Leishmania donovani in Phlebotomus orientalis from a focus of visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 92(2):229–232

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elnaiem DA, Hassan MM, Maingon R, Nureldin GH, Mekawi AM, Miles M, Ward RD (2001) The Egyptian mongoose, Herpestes ichneumon, is a possible reservoir host of visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Sudan. Parasitology 122(Pt 5):531–536

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elnaiem DE, Hassan HK, Osman OF, Maingon RD, Killick-Kendrick R, Ward RD (2011) A possible role for Phlebotomus (Anaphlebotomus) rodhaini (Parrot, 1930) in transmission of Leishmania donovani. Parasite Vectors 4:238. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-4-238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Endris M, Takele Y, Woldeyohannes D, Tiruneh M, Mohammed R, Moges F et al (2014) Bacterial sepsis in patients with visceral leishmaniasis in Northwest Ethiopia. Biomed Res Int 2014:361058. doi:10.1155/2014/361058

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ganguly S, Das NK, Barbhuiya JN, Chatterjee M (2010) Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis – an overview. Int J Dermatol 49(8):921–931

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gebre-Michael T, Lane RP (1996) The roles of Phlebotomus martini and P. celiae (Diptera: Phlebotominae) as vectors of visceral leishmaniasis in the Aba Roba focus, southern Ethiopia. Med Vet Entomol 10(1):53–62

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gebre-Michael T, Balkew M, Ali A, Ludovisi A, Gramiccia M (2004) The isolation of Leishmania tropica and L. aethiopica from Phlebotomus (Paraphlebotomus) species (Diptera: Psychodidae) in the Awash Valley, northeastern Ethiopia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98(1):64–70

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gebre-Michael T, Balkew M, Berhe N, Hailu A, Mekonnen Y (2010) Further studies on the phlebotomus sandflies of the kala-azar endemic lowlands of Humera-Metema (north-west Ethiopia) with observations on their natural blood meal sources. Parasite Vectors 3(1):6. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-3-6

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gebre-Michael T, Balkew M, Yimer M, Hailu A (2013) First record of Phlebotomus (Synphlebotomus) vansomerenae (Diptera: Psychodidae) in Ethiopia. J Med Entomol 50(3):659–663

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelanew T, Amogne W, Abebe T, Kuhls K, Hailu A, Schonian G (2010) A clinical isolate of Leishmania donovani with ITS1 sequence polymorphism as a cause of para-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in an Ethiopian human immunodeficiency virus-positive patient on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Br J Dermatol 163(4):870–874

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gelanew T, Hurissa Z, Diro E, Kassahun A, Kuhls K et al (2011) Disseminated cutaneous leishmaniasis resembling post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis caused by Leishmania donovani in three patients co-infected with visceral leishmaniasis and human immuno-deficiency virus/acquired immune-deficiency syndrome in Ethiopia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 84:906–912

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Githure JI, Ngumbi PM, Anjili CO, Luqalia R, Mwanyumba PM, Kinoti GK, Koech DK (1996) Animal reservoirs of leishmaniasis in Marigat, Baringo District, Kenya. East Afr Med J 73(1):44–47

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gramiccia M, Gradoni L (2005) The current status of zoonotic leishmaniases and approaches to disease control. Int J Parasitol 35(11–12):1169–1180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guiguemdé RT, Sawadogo OS, Bories C, Traore KL, Nezien D, Nikiema L, Pratlong F, Marty P, Houin R, Deniau M (2003) Leishmania major and HIV co-infection in Burkina Faso. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97(2):168–169

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hailu A, Berhe N (2002) The performance of direct agglutination tests (DAT) in the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis among Ethiopian patients with HIV co-infection. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 96(1):25–30

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hailu A, Balkew M, Berhe N, Meredith SE, Gemetchu T (1995) Is Phlebotomus (Larroussius) orientalis a vector of visceral leishmaniasis in south-west Ethiopia? Acta Trop 60(1):15–20

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hailu A, Gebre-Michael T, Berhe N, Balkew M (2006) Leishmaniasis in Ethiopia. In: Kloos H, Berhane Y, Hailemariam D (eds) The ecology and epidemiology of health and disease in Ethiopia, 1st edn. pp 615–634

    Google Scholar 

  • Hailu A, Musa A, Wasunna M, Balasegaram M, Yifru S, Mengistu G, Hurissa Z et al (2010) Geographical variation in the response of visceral leishmaniasis to paromomycin in East Africa: a multicentre, open-label, randomized trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 4(10):e709. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0000709

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hassan MM, Elamin EM, Mukhtar MM (2008) Isolation and identification of Leishmania donovani from Phlebotomus orientalis, in an area of eastern Sudan with endemic visceral leishmaniasis. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 102(6):553–555

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hassan MM, Osman OF, El-Raba’a FM, Schallig HD, Elnaiem DE (2009) Role of domestic dog as reservoir host of Leishmania donovani in eastern Sudan. Parasite Vectors 2(1):26. doi:10.1186/1756-3305-2-26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Herrero M, Orfanos G, Argaw D, Mulugeta A, Aparicio P, Parreno F et al (2009) Natural history of visceral leishmaniasis outbreak in highland Ethiopia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 81(3):373–377

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoogstraal H, Dietlein DR (1964) Leishmaniasis in the Sudan Republic: recent results. Bull World Health Organ 31(1):137–143

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoogstraal H, Heyneman D, Dietlein DR, Browne HG, Reid TP, van Peenen PFD, Saber AH, Rohrs LC (1963) Leishmaniasis in the Sudan Republic: epidemiological findings. Bull World Health Organ 28(2):263–265

    PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jamjoom MB, Ashford RW, Bates PA, Chance ML, Kemp SJ, Watts PC, Noyes HA (2004) Leishmania donovani is the only cause of visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa; previous descriptions of L. infantum and “L. archibaldi” from this region are a consequence of convergent evolution in the isoenzyme data. Parasitology 129(Pt4):399–409

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kalayou S, Tadelle H, Bsrat A, Abebe N, Haileselassie M, Schallig HD (2011) Serological evidence of Leishmania donovani infection in apparently healthy dogs using direct agglutination test (DAT) and rk39 dipstick tests in Kafta Humera, north-west Ethiopia. Transbound Emerg Dis 58(3):255–262

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khalil EA, Musa AM, Younis BM, Elfaki ME, Zijlstra EE, Elhassan AM (2011) Blindness following visceral leishmaniasis: a neglected post-kala-azar complication. Trop Doct 41(3):139–140

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khalil EA, Khidir SA, Musa AM, Musa BY, Elfaki ME, Elkadaru AM et al (2013) Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis: a paradigm of paradoxical immune reconstitution syndrome in non-HIV/AIDS patients. J Trop Med 2013:275253. doi:10.1155/ 2013/275253

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Khalil EA, Weldegebreal T, Younis BM, Omollo R, Musa AM, Hailu W et al (2014) Safety and efficacy of single dose versus multiple doses of AmBisome for the treatment of visceral leishmaniasis in eastern Africa: a randomized trial. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(1):10.1371/journal.pntd.0002613

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kolaczinski JH, Reithinger R, Worku DT, Ocheng A, Kasimiro J, Kabaterine N, Brooker S (2008) Risk factors of visceral leishmaniasis in east Africa: a case-control study in Pokot territory of Kenya and Uganda. Int J Epidemiol 37(2):344–352

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kweku MA, Odoom S, Puplampu N, Desewu K, Nuako GK, Gyan B, Raczniak G, Kronmann KC, Koram K, Botero S, Boakye D, Akuffo H (2011) An outbreak of suspected cutaneous leishmaniasis in Ghana: lessons learnt and preparation for future outbreaks. Glob Health Action 4. doi:10.3402/gha.v4i0.5527

    Google Scholar 

  • Malaria Consortium (2010) Leishmaniasis control in eastern Africa: past and present efforts and future needs. Situation and gap analysis. Available: http://www.malariaconsortium.org/userfiles/file/NTD%20Resources/VL%20EA%20Situation%20Analysis%20Fina_Janl.pdf. Accessed 20 Oct 2014

  • Marlet MV, Wuillaume F, Jacquet D, Quispe KW, Dujardin JC, Boelaert M (2003) A neglected disease of humans: a new focus of visceral leishmaniasis in Bakool, Somalia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 97(6):667–671

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maroli M, Feliciangeli MD, Bichaud L, Charrel RN, Gradoni L (2013) Phlebotomine sandflies and the spreading of leishmaniases and other diseases of public health concern. Med Vet Entomol 27(2):123–147

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mengesha B, Endris M, Takele Y, Mekonnen K, Tadesse T, Feleke A, Diro E (2014) Prevalence of malnutrition and associated risk factors among adult visceral leishmaniasis patients in northwest Ethiopia: a cross sectional study. BMC Res Notes 7:75. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-7-75

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Molina R, Gradoni L, Alvar J (2003) HIV and the transmission of Leishmania. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 97(Suppl 1):29–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monge-Maillo B, Norman FF, Cruz I, Alvar J, Lopez-Velez R (2014) Visceral leishmaniasis and HIV coinfection in the Mediterranean Region. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 8(8):e3021. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003021

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mukhtar MM, Sharief AH, el Saffi SH, Harith AE, Hiqazzi TB, Adam AM, Abdalla HS (2000) Detection of antibodies to Leishmania donovani in animals in a kala-azar endemic region in eastern Sudan: a preliminary report. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 94(1):33–36

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mukhtar MM, Elamin EM, Bakhiet SM, Kheir MM, Ali AB (2010) First report on Leishmania major/HIV coinfection in a Sudanese patient. East Mediterr Health J 16(6):702–703

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mutinga MJ (1991) A review of investigations on leishmaniasis vectors in Kenya. Parassitologia 33(Suppl):453–461

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mutinga MJ, Ngoka JM, Schnur LF, Chance ML (1980) The isolation and identification of leishmanial parasites from domestic dogs in Machakos District of Kenya, and the possible role of dogs as reservoir hosts of kala-azar in east Africa. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 74(2):139–144

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Osman OF, Kager PA, Oskam L (2000) Leishmaniasis in the Sudan: a literature review with emphasis on clinical aspects. Trop Med Int Health 5(8):553–562

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Perkins PV, Githure JI, Mebrahtu Y, Kiilu G, Anjili C, Ngumbi PS et al (1988) Isolation of Leishmania donovani from Phlebotomus martini in Baringo district, Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 82(5):695–700

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis: a manual for case management and control: report of a WHO consultative meeting, Kolkata, India, 2–3 July 2012. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/78608/1/9789241505215__eng.pdf

  • Pratlong F, Debord T, Garnotel E, Garrabe E, Marty P, Raphenon G, Dedet JP (2005) First identification of the causative agent of visceral leishmaniasis in Djibouti: Leishmania donovani. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 99(1):21–25

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Puig L, Pradinaud R (2003) Leishmania and HIV co-infection: dermatological manifestations. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 97(Suppl 1):S107–S114

    Google Scholar 

  • Raguenaud ME, Jansson A, Vanlerberghe A, Deborggraeve S, Dujardin JC, Orfanos G et al (2006) Epidemiology and clinical features of patients with visceral leishmaniasis treated by an MSF clinic in Bakool region, Somalia, 2004–2006. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 1(1):e85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ritmeijer K, Veeken H, Melaku Y, Leal G, Amsalu R et al (2001) Ethiopian visceral leishmaniasis: generic and proprietary sodium stibogluconate are equivalent; HIV co-infected patients have a poor outcome. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 95:668–672

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Russo R, Laguna F, Lopez-Velez R, Medrano FJ, Rosenthal E, Cacopardo B, Nigro L (2003) Visceral leishmaniasis in those infected with HIV: clinical aspects and other opportunistic infections. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 97(Suppl 1):99–105

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saporito L, Giammanco GM, De Grazia S, Colomba C (2013) Visceral leishmaniasis: host-parasite interactions and clinical presentation in the immunocompetent and in the immunocompromised host. Int J Infect Dis 17(8):e572–e576. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2012.12.024

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sati MH (1958) Early phases of an outbreak of kala-azar in the Southern Fung. Sudan Med J 1:98–111

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer KU, Kurtzhals JA, Sherwood JA, Githure JI, Kager PA, Muller AS (1994) Epidemiology and clinical manifestations of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis in Baringo District, Rift Valley, Kenya. A literature review. Trop Geogr Med 46(3):129–133

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer KU, Kurtzhals JA, Gachihi GS, Muller AS and Kager PA (1995) A prospective sero-epidemiological study of visceral leishmaniasis in Baringo District, Rift Valley Province, Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 89 (5):471–475

    Google Scholar 

  • Schorscher JA, Goris M (1992) Incrimination of Phlebotomus (Larroussius) orientalis as a vector of visceral leishmaniasis in western upper Nile Province, southern Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 86(6):622–623

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seaman J, Mercer AJ, Sondorp HE, Herwaldt BL (1996) The epidemic of visceral leishmaniasis in western upper Nile, southern Sudan: course and impact from 1984 to 1994. Int J Epidemiol 25(4):862–871

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seid A, Gadisa E, Tsegaw T, Abera A, Teshome A, Mulugeta A, Herrero M, Argaw D, Jorge A, Kebede A, Aseffa A (2014) Risk map for cutaneous leishmaniasis in Ethiopia based on environmental factors as revealed by geographical information systems and statistics. Geospat Health 8(2):377–387

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sirol J, Vedy J, Barabe P, Cesari C, Berger P (1976) Kala-Azar in the Republic of Chad. 6 year survey at the Central Hospital of N’Djamena (Fort-Lamy). Bull Soc Pathol Exot Fil 69(3):232–237

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sixl W, Sebek Z, Reinthaler F, Mascher F (1987) Investigations of wild animals as leishmania reservoir in south Sudan. J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol 31(4 Suppl):483–485

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson R (1940) An epidemic of kala-azar in the Upper Nile province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 34:175–179

    Google Scholar 

  • Tonui WK (2006) Situational analysis of leishmaniases research in Kenya. Afr J Health Sci 13(1–2):7–21

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Utaile M, Kassahun A, Abebe T, Hailu A (2013) Susceptibility of clinical isolates of Leishmania aethiopica to miltefosine, paromomycin, amphotericin B and sodium stibogluconate using amastigote-macrophage in vitro model. Exp Parasitol 134(1):68–75. doi:10.1016/l.exppara.2013.01.022

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van den Bogaart E, Berkhout MM, Nour AB, Mens PF, Talha AB, Adams ER et al (2013) Concomitant malaria among visceral leishmaniasis in-patients from Gedarif and Sennar States, Sudan: a retrospective case-control study. BMC Public Health 13:332. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-332

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization (2010) Control of the Leishmaniases. In: WHO Technical Report Series 949: report of a meeting of the WHO Expert Committee on the Control of Leishmaniases, Geneva, 22–26 March 2010. World Health Organization, Geneva. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/trs/WHO_TRS_949_eng.pdf

  • World Health Organization (2013) Fact sheet no. fs375; updated January 2014. Available at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs375/en/

  • World Health Organization and Overseas Development Administration (1996) Manual on visceral leishmaniasis control. www.who.int/leishmaniasis/surveillance/.../en/WHO_LEISH_96.40.pdf

  • Zijlstra EE, el-Hassan AM, Ismael A and Ghalib HW (1994) Endemic kala-azar in eastern Sudan: a longitudinal study on the incidence of clinical and subclinical infection and post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 51(6):826–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Zijlstra EE, Musa AM, Khalil EA, el-Hassan IM, el-Hassan AM (2003) Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. Lancet Infect Dis 3(2):87–98

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Parasitology, School of Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

    Asrat Hailu

  2. Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases (HTM/NTD), World Health Organization, 20, Avenue Appia, Geneva, CH-1211, Switzerland

    Daniel Argaw Dagne

  3. Department of Public Health, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat 155, Antwerpen, 2000, Belgium

    Marleen Boelaert

Authors
  1. Asrat Hailu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Daniel Argaw Dagne
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Marleen Boelaert
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Asrat Hailu .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Ofc of Research, Innovation & Dev, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana

    John Gyapong

  2. Lymphatic Filariasis Support Centre, University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana

    Boakye Boatin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Hailu, A., Dagne, D.A., Boelaert, M. (2016). Leishmaniasis. In: Gyapong, J., Boatin, B. (eds) Neglected Tropical Diseases - Sub-Saharan Africa. Neglected Tropical Diseases. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25471-5_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation