Delusions and Hallucinations

Chapter
Part of the Neuropsychiatric Symptoms of Neurological Disease book series (NSND)

Abstract

Delusions and hallucinations are core symptoms of psychoses. The prevalence of psychoses in people with epilepsy is higher than in the general population. Links between psychoses and epilepsy have been observed since ancient times. Today, we are aware that not only epilepsy-related vulnerability factors but also individual-related (general) vulnerability factors make people with epilepsy more prone to psychoses. Bidirectional relationships between epilepsy and psychoses in their genesis are also recognized. Chronological relationships between the onset of the seizure and of the psychoses themselves are a feature unique to psychoses in epilepsy, which are classified as ictal, post-ictal, and inter-ictal accordingly. In this chapter, we have described delusions and hallucinations in people with epilepsy within the three subclassifications, since the manifestations are rather different among the three groups. We have summarized their treatment and prognosis, which again differ between the three types of epilepsy psychoses. We have then presented newer concepts on the genesis of these symptoms. Many characteristics are common between ictal (particularly during seizure status) and post-ictal phenomena; thus, there may be a practical value to have them unified and classed as peri-ictal phenomena. We have also reviewed accumulating evidence illustrating characteristics common between “epileptic” and “functional” psychoses. This highlights the importance of individual-related (general) vulnerability factors for the genesis of delusions and hallucinations in people with epilepsy.

Keywords

Delusion Hallucination Psychosis Epilepsy Vulnerability Ictal psychotic phenomenon Post-ictal psychosis Peri-ictal psychosis Inter-ictal psychosis Functional psychosis Organic psychosis Genesis of psychoses 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Notes

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Ms. Emiri Adachi for help with computer graphing.

References

  1. 1.
    Temkin O. The falling sickness. A history of epilepsy from the Greeks to the beginnings of modern neurology. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press; 1945.Google Scholar
  2. 2.
    Uchimura Y. Seishin-igaku no kihon-mondai. (Basic problems in psychiatry. Structural concepts for understanding mental disorders). Tokyo: Igaku Shoin; 1972 [Japanese].Google Scholar
  3. 3.
    American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th ed. Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association; 2013.Google Scholar
  4. 4.
    Cockerell OC, Moriarty J, Trimble M, Sander JWAS, Shorvon SD. Acute psychological disorders in patients with epilepsy: a nation-wide study. Epilepsy Res. 1996;25:119–31.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Qin P, Xu H, Laursen TM, Vestergaard M, Moriensen PB. Risk for schizophrenia and schizophrenia-like psychosis among patients with epilepsy: population based cohort study. Br Med J. 2005;331:23–5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Onuma T, Adachi N, Ishida S, Kato M, Uesugi H. Prevalence and annual incidence of paranoid state in epilepsy. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1995;49:S267–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Cascella N, Schretlen DJ, Sawa A. Schizophrenia and epilepsy: is there a shared susceptibility? Neurosci Res. 2009;63:227–35.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Adachi N, Onuma T, Kato M, Ito M, Akanuma N, Hara T, et al. Analogy between psychosis antedating epilepsy and epilepsy antedating psychosis. Epilepsia. 2011;52:1239–44.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Chang Y, Chen PC, Tsai IJ, Sung FC, Chin ZN, Kuo HT, et al. Bidirectional relation between schizophrenia and epilepsy: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Epilepsia. 2011;52:2036–42.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Berrios GE. Delirium and confusion in the 19th century. A conceptual history. Br J Psychiatry. 1981;139:439–49.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Lipowski ZJ. Delirium: acute confusional states. New York: Oxford University Press; 1990.Google Scholar
  12. 12.
    Kraeperin E. Psychiatrie. Ein Lehrbuch fur Studierende und Arzte. Leipzig: Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth; 1913. (Trans; Nishimaru S, Nishimaru T. Tokyo: Misuzu Shobo; 1986 [Japanese]).Google Scholar
  13. 13.
    Jaspers K. General psychopathology. Berlin: Springer; 1913. (Trans. Uchimura Y, Nishimaru S, Shimazaki T, Okada K, Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten; 1953 [Japanese]).Google Scholar
  14. 14.
    World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1992.Google Scholar
  15. 15.
    Nuevo R, Chatterji S, Verdes E, Naidoo N, Arango C, Ayuso-Matos JL. The continuum of psychotic symptoms in the general population: a cross-national study. Schizophr Bull. 2012;38:475–85.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Crow TJ. Positive and negative schizophrenic symptoms and the role of dopamine. Br J Psychiatry. 1980;137:383–6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Toone B. Psychoses of epilepsy. In: Reynolds EH, Trimble MR, editors. Epilepsy and psychiatry. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1981. p. 113–37.Google Scholar
  18. 18.
    Trimble M. The psychoses of epilepsy. New York: Raven; 1991.Google Scholar
  19. 19.
    World Health Organization. Lexicon of psychiatric and mental health term. 2nd ed. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1994.Google Scholar
  20. 20.
    Garety PA, Hemsley DR. Delusions. Investigations into the psychology of delusional reasoning. Oxford: Oxford Univ Press; 1994.Google Scholar
  21. 21.
    Maher B, Ross JS. Delusions. In: Adams HE, Sutker PB, editors. Comprehensive handbook of psychopathology. New York: Plenum; 1984. p. 383–411.Google Scholar
  22. 22.
    Gilleen J, David AS. The cognitive neuropsychiatry of delusions: from psychopathology to neuropsychology and back again. Psychol Med. 2005;35:5–12.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Menon V. Large-scale brain networks and psychopathology: a unifying triple network model. Trends Cogn Sci. 2011;15:483–506.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Mullen P. The phenomenology of disordered mental function. In: Hill P, Murray R, Thorley A, editors. Essentials of post graduate psychiatry. London: Academic; 1979. p. 25–54.Google Scholar
  25. 25.
    Spitzer M. On defining delusions. Compr Psychiatry. 1990;31:377–97.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Oltmanns TF. Approaches to definition and study of delusions. In: Oltmanns TF, Maher BA, editors. Delusional beliefs. New York: John Wiley & Sons; 1988. p. 3–11.Google Scholar
  27. 27.
    Mullen R, Linscott RJ. A comparison of delusions and overvalued ideas. J Nerv Ment Dis. 2010;198:35–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Hamada H. Seishin-shoukougaku. (Semiologie psychiatrique). Tokyo: Koubundo; 1994 [Japanese].Google Scholar
  29. 29.
    Gilboa A, Moscovitch M. The cognitive neuroscience of confaburation: a review and model. In: Baddeley AD, Kopelman MD, Wilson BA, editors. Handbook of memory disorders. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley; 2002. p. 315–42.Google Scholar
  30. 30.
    Berrios GE. Confabulations. In: Berrios GE, Hodges JR, editors. Memory disorders in psychiatric practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2000. p. 348–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Freeman D. Delusions in the nonclinical population. Curr Psychiatry Rep. 2006;8:191–204.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    van Os J, Linscott RJ, Myin-Germeys I, Delespaul P, Krabbendam L. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the psychosis continuum: evidence for a psychosis proneness-persistence-impairment model of psychotic disorder. Psychol Med. 2009;39:179–95.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Blom JD. Hallucinations and other sensory deceptions in psychiatric disorders. In: Jardi R, Cachia A, Thomas P, Pins D, editors. The neuroscience of hallucinations. New York: Springer; 2013. p. 43–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Assad G. Hallucinations in clinical psychiatry. A guide for mental health professionals. New York: Brunner Mazel; 1990.Google Scholar
  35. 35.
    Jobst BC. Focal seizures with visual hallucinations. In: Panayiotopoulos C, editor. Atlas of epilepsies. London: Springer; 2010. p. 457–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Benetti S, Pettersson-Yeo W, Mechelli A. Connectivity issues of ‘hallucinating’ brain. In: Jardi R, Cachia A, Thomas P, Pins D, editors. The neuroscience of hallucinations. New York: Springer; 2013. p. 417–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Sedman G. A comparative study of pseudo-hallucinations, imagery, and true hallucinations. Br J Psychiatry. 1966;112:9–17.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Johns LC, Kompus K, Connell M, Humpston C, Lincoln TM, Longden E, et al. Auditory verbal hallucinations in persons with without a need for care. Schizophr Bull. 2014;40 Suppl 4:255–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Strauss JS. Hallucinations and delusions as points on continua function. Rating scale evidence. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1969;21:581–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Hafner H, der Heiden W. Course and outcome of schizophrenia. In: Hirsh SR, Weinberger D, editors. Schizophrenia. 2nd ed. Malden: Blackwell Science; 2003. p. 101–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Glaus A. Uber Kombinationen von Schizophrenie und Epilepsie. Zeitschr Ges Neurol Psychiat. 1931;135:450–500.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Gibbs F. Ictal and non-ictal psychiatric disorders in temporal lobe epilepsy. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1951;11:522–8.Google Scholar
  43. 43.
    Craddock N, Owen MJ. The Kraepelinian dichotomy – going, going…but still not gone. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;196:92–5.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Adachi N, Akanuma N, Ito M, Kato M, Hara T, Oana Y, et al. Authors’ reply. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;197:76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Adachi N. Epilepsy and psychosis. Issues on clinical research in epilepsy psychosis. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi. 2006;108:260–5 [Japanese].Google Scholar
  46. 46.
    Kanner AM. Peri-ictal psychiatric phenomena; clinical characteristics and implications of past future psychiatric disorders. In: Ettinger AB, Kanner AM, editors. Psychiatric issues in epilepsy, a practical guide to diagnosis and treatment. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: LWW; 2007. p. 321–45.Google Scholar
  47. 47.
    Benatar M. Cognitive manifestations of status epilepticus. In: Drislane F, editor. Status epilepticus. A clinical perspective. Totowa: Humana Press; 2004. p. 221–44.Google Scholar
  48. 48.
    Gastaut H. Dictionary of epilepsy. Part 1: definitions. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1973.Google Scholar
  49. 49.
    Jobst BC. Focal seizures with auditory hallucinations. In: Panayiotopoulos C, editor. Atlas of epilepsies. London: Springer; 2010. p. 447–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Kasper BS, Kerling F, Graf W, Stefan H, Pauli E. Ictal delusion of sexual transformation. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;16:356–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League Against Epilepsy. Proposal for revised clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizure. Epilepsia. 1981;22:489–501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Sachdev P. Schizophrenia-like psychosis and epilepsy: the status association. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;155:325–36.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Shorvon S. Status epilepticus. Its clinical features and treatment in children and adults. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1994.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Thomas P, Sned OC. Absence status epilepticus. In: Engel Jr J, Pedley TA, editors. Epilepsy. A comprehensive textbook. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Wiliams & Wilkins; 2008. p. 693–703.Google Scholar
  55. 55.
    Seeck M, Alberque C, Spinelli L, Michel CM, Jallon P, De Tribolet N, et al. Left temoral rhythmic electrical activity: a correlate for psychosis? A case report. J Neural Transm. 1999;106:787–94.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Takeda Y, Inoue Y, Tottori T, Mihara T. Acute psychosis during intracranial EEG monitoring: close relationship between psychotic symptoms and discharges in amygdala. Epilepsia. 2001;42:719–24.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Hesdorffer DC, Hauser AH. Epidemiological considerations. In: Ettinger AB, Kanner AM, editors. Psychiatric issues in epilepsy. A practical guide to diagnosis and treatment. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: LWW; 2007. p. 1–16.Google Scholar
  58. 58.
    Slater E, Roth M. Mayer-gross, Slater and Roth clinical psychiatry. 3rd ed. London: Bailliere Tindal; 1969.Google Scholar
  59. 59.
    Logsdail SJ, Toone BK. Postictal psychoses. A clinical and phenomenological description. Br J Psychiatry. 1988;152:246–52.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Adachi N, Matsuura M, Hara T, Oana Y, Okubo Y, Kato M, Onuma T. Psychoses and epilepsy: are interictal and postictal psychoses distinct clinical entities? Epilepsia. 2002;43:1574–82.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Adachi N, Ito M, Kanemoto K, Akanuma N, Okazaki M, Ishida S, et al. Duration of postictal psychotic episodes. Epilepsia. 2007;48:1531–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Kanemoto K. Postictal psychoses, established facts and new clinical questions. In: Trimble M, Schmitz B, editors. The neuropsychiatry of epilepsy. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2011. p. 67–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Oshima T, Tadokoro Y, Kanemoto K. A prospective study of postictal psychoses with emphasis on the periictal type. Epilepsia. 2006;47:2131–4.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Kanemoto K. Postictal psychoses, revisited. In: Trimble M, Schmitz B, editors. The neuropsychiatry of epilepsy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2002. p. 117–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Devinsky O. Postictal psychosis: common, dangerous, and treatable. Epilepsy Curr. 2008;8:31–4.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Kanner AM, Stagno S, Kotagal P, Morris HH. Postictal psychiatric events during prolonged video-electroencephalographic monitoring studies. Arch Neurol. 1996;53:258–63.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Kanemoto K, Kawasaki J, Kawai I. Postictal psychosis: a comparison with acute interictal and chronic psychoses. Epilepsia. 1996;37:551–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Kanemoto K, Kawasaki J, Mori E. Violence and epilepsy: a close relation between violence and postictal psychosis. Epilepsia. 1999;40:107–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Fukuchi T, Kanemoto K, Kato M, Ishida S, Yuasa S, Kawasaki J, et al. Death in epilepsy with special attention to suicide cases. Epilepsy Res. 2002;51:233–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Alper K, Devinsky O, Westbrook L, Luciano D, Pacia S, Perrine K, Vazquez B. Premorbid psychiatric risk factors for postictal psychosis. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2001;13:492–9.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Tarulli A, Devinsky O, Alper K. Progression of postictal and interictal psychosis. Epilepsia. 2001;42:1468–71.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Adachi N, Kato M, Sekimoto M, Ichikawa I, Akanuma N, Uesugi H, et al. Recurrent postictal psychoses after remission of interictal psychosis: Further evidence of bimodal psychosis. Epilepsia. 2003;44:1218–22.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Shorvon S, Trinka E. Nonconvulsive status epileptics and postictal state. Epilepsy Behav. 2010;19:172–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Slater E, Beard AW, Glithero E. The schizophrenia-like psychoses of epilepsy. Br J Psychiatry. 1963;109:95–150.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Hill D. Psychiatric disorders of epilepsy. Med Press. 1953;229:473–5.Google Scholar
  76. 76.
    Pond DA. Psychiatric aspects of epilepsy. J Indian Med Prof. 1957;3:1421–51.Google Scholar
  77. 77.
    Toone B, Garralda ME, Ron MA. The psychoses of epilepsy and the functional psychoses: a clinical and phenomenological comparison. Br J Psychiatry. 1982;141:256–61.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Perez M, Trimble MR, Murray NMF, Reider I. Epileptic psychosis: an evaluation of PSE profiles. Br J Psychiatry. 1985;146:155–63.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Mendez MF, Grau R, Doss RC, Taylor JL. Schizophrenia in epilepsy: seizure and psychosis variables. Neurology. 1993;43:1073–7.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Matsuura M, Adachi N, Oana Y, Okubo Y, Kato M, Nakano T, et al. A polydiagnostic and dimensional comparison of psychopathology of epileptic psychoses and schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophr Res. 2004;69:189–201.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Tadokoro Y, Oshima T, Kanemoto K. Interictal psychosis in comparison with schizophrenia. A prospective study. Epilepsia. 2007;48:2345–51.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Ito M, Adachi N, Adachi T, Kato M, Onuma T, Matsubara R, et al. Evaluation of psychiatric symptoms in epilepsy psychosis using BPRS. Epilepsia. 2010;51 Suppl 4:29.Google Scholar
  83. 83.
    Adachi N, Akanuma N, Ito M, Kato M, Hara T, Oana Y, et al. Epileptic, organic, and genetic vulnerabilities for timing of the development of onset of interictal psychosis. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;196:212–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Adachi N, Matsuura M, Okubo Y, Oana Y, Takei N, Kato M, et al. Predictive variables of interictal psychosis in epilepsy. Neurology. 2000;55:1310–4.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Kanemoto K, Tsuji T, Kawasaki J. Reexamination of interictal psychoses based on DSM IV psychosis classification and international epilepsy classification. Epilepsia. 2001;42:98–103.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Adachi N, Onuma T, Hara T, Matsuura M, Okubo Y, Kato M, et al. Frequency and age-related variables in interictal psychoses in localization-related epilepsies. Epilepsy Res. 2002;48:25–31.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Mellers J, Toone BK, Lishman WA. A neuropsychological comparison of schizophrenia and schizophrenia-like psychosis of epilepsy. Psychol Med. 2000;30:325–35.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Flor-Henry P. Psychosis and temporal lobe epilepsy: a controlled investigation. Epilepsia. 1969;10:363–95.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Jensen I, Larsen JK. Mental aspects of temporal lobe epilepsy. Follow-up of 74 patients after resection of a temporal lobe. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1979;42:256–65.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Matsuura M. Epileptic psychoses and anticonvulsant drug treatment. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1999;67:231–3.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Mula M, Monaco F. Antiepileptic drugs and psychopathology of epilepsy: an update. Epileptic Disord. 2009;11:1–9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Adachi N. Epilepsy as a risk factor for schizophrenia. Presented in the 13th Pacific Rim College of Psychiatrists Scientific Meeting. Tokyo, 2008.Google Scholar
  93. 93.
    Ingram RE, Price JM. The role of vulnerability in understanding psychopathology. In: Ingram RE, Price JM, editors. Vulnerability to psychopathology. Risk across the lifespan. New York: Guilford press; 2001. p. 3–19.Google Scholar
  94. 94.
    Koutroumanidis M, Adachi N, Howard R. History, physical and mental examination, and assessment. In: Panayiotopoulos CP, editor. Atlas of epilepsies. London: Springer; 2010. p. 671–80.Google Scholar
  95. 95.
    Onuma T. Therapeutic approach to epileptic patients with psychiatric symptoms. Jpn J Psychiatry Treat. 1987;2:553–60 [Japanese].Google Scholar
  96. 96.
    Adachi N. Treatment of mental disorders in epilepsy patients. Jpn J Psychiatry Treat. 2005;20(Suppl):370–3 [Japanese].Google Scholar
  97. 97.
    Adachi N, Kanemoto K, de Toffel B, Akanuma N, Oshima T, Mohan A, et al. Basic treatment principles for psychotic disorders in patients with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2013;54 Suppl 1:19–33.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Kerr M, Mensah S, Besag F, de Toffol B, Ettinger A, Kanemoto K, et al. International consensus clinical practice statements for the treatment of neuropsychiatric conditions associated with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2011;52:2133–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    American Psychiatric Association. Practice guideline for the treatment of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 1998;154 Suppl 4:1–63.Google Scholar
  100. 100.
    Krauss G, Theodore WH. Treatment strategies in the postictal state. Epilepsy Behav. 2010;19:188–90.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Lancman ME, Craven WJ, Asconapé JJ, Penry JK. Clinical management of recurrent postictal psychosis. J Epilepsy. 1994;7:47–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Adachi N, Akanuma N, Ito M, Okazaki M, Kato M, Onuma T. Interictal psychotic episodes in epilepsy: duration and associated clinical factors. Epilepsia. 2012;53:1088–94.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Francey SM, Nelson B, Thompson A, Parker AG, Kerr M, Macneil C, et al. Who need antipsychotic medication in the earliest stage of psychosis? A reconsideration of benefits, risks, neurobiology and ethics in the era of early intervention. Schizophr Res. 2010;119:1–10.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Crossley NA, Constante M, McGuire P, Power P. Efficacy of atypical v. typical antipsychotics in the treatment of early psychosis: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2010;196:434–9.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Girgis RR, Phillips MR, Li X, Li K, Jiang H, Wu C, et al. Clozapine v. chlorpromazine in treatment-naïve, first-episode schizophrenia: 9-year outcomes of a randomized clinical trial. Br J Psychiatry. 2011;199:281–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Hara K, Adachi N, Okazaki M, Ito M, Akanuma N, Kato M, et al. Duration of interictal psychotic episodes by antipsychotic drug treatments. Epilepsy Behav. 2013;27:342–5.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Okazaki M, Adachi N, Akanuma N, Hara K, Ito M, Kato M, Onuma T. Do antipsychotic drugs increase seizure frequency in epilepsy patients? Eur Psychoneuropharmachol. 2014;24:1738–44.Google Scholar
  108. 108.
    Gardner DM, Murphy AL, O’Donnel H, Centorrino F, Baldessarini RJ. International consensus study of antipsychotic dosing. Am J Psychiatry. 2010;167:686–93.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Cockerell OC, Walker MC, Sander JWAS, Shorvon SD. Complex partial status epilepticus: a recurrent problem. J Neurol Neurosurge Psychiatry. 1994;57:835–7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Devinsky O, Abramson H, Alper K, FitzGerald LS, Perrine K, Calderon J, Luciano D. Postictal psychosis: a case control series of 20 patients and 150 controls. Epilepsy Res. 1995;20:247–53.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Kanner AM, Ostrovskaya A. Long-term significance of postictal psychotic episodes II. Are they predictive of interictal psychotic episodes? Epilepsy Behav. 2008;12:154–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Onuma T, Adachi N, Hisano T, Uesugi S. 10-year follow-up study of epilepsy with psychosis. Jpn J Psychiat Neurol. 1991;45:360–1.Google Scholar
  113. 113.
    Harris EC, Barraclough B. Excess mortality of mental disorder. Br J Psychiatry. 1999;173:11–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Hitiris N, Mohanraj R, Norrie J, Brodie MJ. Mortality in epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav. 2007;10:363–76.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Adachi Mental ClinicKiyota, SapporoJapan
  2. 2.Lambeth Assessment, Liaison and Treatment TeamSouth London & Maudsley NHS Foundation TrustLondonUK

Personalised recommendations