Abstract
Tautology in word-formation is a poorly investigated phenomenon, compared to the more robust discussions of tautology in syntax (Sect. 2). On some restrictive interpretations of the concept of ‘morphological tautology’, it really emerges as an epiphenomenon or else as a terminological misnomer. Within some approaches, the term ‘tautology’ has been replaced by other designations, such as pleonasm, hypercharacterization, etc. Nevertheless, rare references to tautology in word-formation can be found in the literature, suggesting that tautology may be looked upon as a structural and semantic property of certain types of compounds as well as derivatives, in English and in other languages (Sect. 3). The aim of this article is to bring together a variety of sources that have dealt with the phenomenon in question, in order to estimate its scope, characteristics and diachronic development (Sect. 4). The analysis will focus on data from English and Polish word-formation (with a few examples from German and Irish as well).
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
According to Cruse (2004: 222), tautonyms belong to the set of three basic types of syntagmatic sense relations, together with philonyms and xenonyms.
- 3.
Alternative, more elaborate definitions of tautology as a stylistic and rhetorical problem may be found in several reference works, including Fowler’s A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (Fowler 1926[1983]: 615–6). McArthur (1992: 1022) draws a distinction between two uses of the term ‘tautology’: (1) as “a term in rhetoric for unnecessary and ineffective repetition, usually with words that add nothing new” (also pleonasm), and (2) as a term in logic, for “a compound proposition that is always true”.
- 4.
See also Bloomer (1996) on pleonastic compounds in Modern German.
- 5.
Incidentally, terms such as ‘tautology’ or ‘tautological compounds’ are not indexed in the major contemporary source on compounding, i.e. Lieber and Štekauer (2009). However, the group of “clarifying, or tautological, compounds” is mentioned in this volume and illustrated with the English noun raspberry (Grzega 2009: 232).
- 6.
Although these colloquial formations are not listed in standard dictionaries, they can be found using Google. Thus, for instance, the nouns taker-outer and putter-inner, referring to two approaches used by writers while editing their prose, appear on the following blog: http://clarionfoundation.wordpress.com/2012/12/24/writers-craft-104-putter-inner-or-taker-outer/ (date of access: March 15th, 2014). The form taker-outer is also seen in compounds like staple taker-outer ‘staple remover’, trash / garbage taker-outer.
- 7.
It is emphasized in Bauer et al. (2013: 218) that there are only four attested examples of the type in question that involve just a single occurrence of the suffix -er: putter-in, fixer up, picker-up, loosen-upper.
- 8.
The [k ∼ č] alternation is due to palatalization. This produces allomorphy in the suffix.
- 9.
The argument holds only on the assumption that we are dealing here with a sequence of two distinct suffixes, in the first place. Alternatively, it can be maintained that “-ic and -ical are alternate realizations of the same affix” (Bauer et al. 2013: 320).
- 10.
There is another, superficially similar pattern of English adjectives which contain two adjective-forming suffixes: -ist and -ic. For a subset of this class, e.g. characteristic, it has been argued that the two suffixes “are best analysed as a single morpheme” (Bauer 1988: 18), which illustrates the concept of a synaffix. However, even though characteristic, like symbolical, contains a sequence of two adjectival suffixes, there are significant differences: characteristic has no established base (or by-form); cf. *characterist versus symbolic.
- 11.
The OED defines the relevant sense of over- in the following formula: ‘to a greater extent, or at a greater rate, than is usual, natural, or intended; too far’; cf. overestimate, overexpose, overheat, overpay, etc.
- 12.
- 13.
In the polite imperative formula corresponding to the English Sit down, please, the prefixed variant of the verb (Proszę usiąść) seems to be more common than the unprefixed one (Proszę siąść), the latter being grammatical (possible) nonetheless, like the use of the imperfective form (Proszę siadać), which may sound a bit less polite.
- 14.
Normally, the prefix po- is a perfectivizing marker, i.e. depending on the given verb, it may have an aspectual value only (e.g. dzielić ‘to divide, imperfective’ > podzielić ‘id., perfective’) or else it can convey, additionally, a variety of lexical meanings (e.g. ‘delimitative’ in pływać ‘to swim, imperfective’ > popływać ‘to swim for a while, perfective’).
- 15.
See Grzegorczykowa and Puzynina (1979: 234) for more examples of ‘tautological’ formations in -in(a)/-yn(a). In numerous other denominal derivatives, the suffix in question appears with a variety of specific meanings. For example: ‘expressive’ in aktorzyna ‘ham (actor)’, ‘wood from’ in dębina ‘oak-wood’, ‘meat from’ in baranina ‘mutton’, ‘singulative’ in śnieżyna ‘snowflake’, etc.
- 16.
The simplified gloss ‘page’ (in a book, newspaper, document, etc.) for Polish strona may be misleading as it corresponds to only one of the two relevant senses of page in English: ‘a side of the pieces of paper in a book, etc.’, but not ‘one of the sheets of paper in a book, etc.’ The latter meaning is expressed in Polish by the noun kartka (or karta).
- 17.
Another thing is that the derived noun stronica (unlike strona) seems to be part of the active vocabulary of educated speakers only.
- 18.
It will be noted, incidentally, that another type of morphological process, i.e. clipping, regularly produces large amounts of synonymous forms. But such cases are, at least partially, motivated by the requirements of economy.
- 19.
Different kinds of motivation for (morphological and syntactic) pleonasm are discussed in Lehmann (2005: 127–135); e.g. intensity, emphasis, rhematicity, etc. Phrasal or sentential tautologies like null and void, business is business are explicitly linked to emphasis as the motivating factor.
- 20.
In fact, the suffix in question is multifunctional. For instance, it can be used as an expressive marker in terms of endearment.
- 21.
Perhaps the only context where wiadro is unlikely is when reference is being made to a toy sandpail; wiaderko or wiadereczko (diminutive) will be used instead.
- 22.
Another consequence of the semantic shift under discussion is the restructuring of the series Noun > Diminutive > Double Diminutive, for a number of nominal bases. Cf. (morphologically) księga ‘book (now mostly obsolete)’ > książka ‘book, diminutive’ > książeczka ‘book, double diminutive’ vs. (semantically, synchronically) księga ‘book, augmentative (a weighty tome)’ < książka ‘book’ > książeczka ‘book, diminutive’; see Szymanek (2010: 256) for more examples and discussion.
- 23.
Unless, contrary to what is suggested by the OED entry for manufacturage, the noun in question was coined on the conversion-related verb to manufacture. Then, at least, the function of word-class shift (V > N) could be ascribed to the suffix -age.
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Szymanek, B. (2015). Remarks on Tautology in Word-Formation. In: Bauer, L., Körtvélyessy, L., Štekauer, P. (eds) Semantics of Complex Words. Studies in Morphology, vol 3. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14102-2_8
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