Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Individual Differences in Cognitive Training Research

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Cognitive Training

Abstract

Asking whether a cognitive training program “works” does less to further research in the field than asking why a participant does or does not improve on training or transfer measures following the intervention. To better understand the divergent results between many cognitive training studies, it is likely necessary to investigate the individual difference factors that might influence the outcome of training. The present chapter covers a range of factors that have been examined in cognitive training research, including baseline performance, age, motivation, personality, and socioeconomic status. While baseline performance and age have received the most attention, a growing body of cognitive training studies have incorporated other individual difference factors in their analyses as well. Given this development, we include a discussion of how researchers might more effectively incorporate individual difference variables into their studies. Continued, high quality research into the role of these factors in the outcome of training remains an important step in developing training interventions that are broadly effective for individuals from a variety of backgrounds.

COI Statement: MB is an employee at the MIND Research Institute, Irvine, CA, whose interests are related to this work. SMJ has an indirect financial interest in the MIND Research Institute.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ackerman, P. L. (1986, September). Skill acquisition, individual differences, and human abilities. In Proceedings of the Human Factors Society Annual Meeting, 30, 270–274.

    Google Scholar 

  • Au, J., Sheehan, E., Tsai, N., Duncan, G. J., Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2014). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 366–377.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bherer, L., Kramer, A. F., Peterson, M. S., Colcombe, S., Erickson, K., & Becic, E. (2008). Transfer effects in task-set cost and dual-task cost after dual-task training in older and younger adults: Further evidence for cognitive plasticity in attentional control in late adulthood. Experimental Aging Research, 34, 188–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair, C., & Raver, C. C. (2014). Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: Results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten. PLoS ONE, 9, e112393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borella, E., Carretti, B., Cantarella, A., Riboldi, F., Zavagnin, M., & De Beni, R. (2014). Benefits of training visuospatial working memory in young–old and old–old. Developmental Psychology, 50, 714–727.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borella, E., Carbone, E., Pastore, M., De Beni, R., & Carretti, B. (2017). Working memory training for healthy older adults: The role of individual characteristics in explaining short-and long-term gains. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brehmer, Y., Westerberg, H., & Bäckman, L. (2012). Working-memory training in younger and older adults: training gains, transfer, and maintenance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carretti, B., Borella, E., Elosúa, M. R., Gómez-Veiga, I., & García-Madruga, J. A. (2017). Improvements in reading comprehension performance after a training program focusing on executive processes of working memory. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 268–279.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cepeda, N. J., Kramer, A. F., & Gonzalez de Sather, J. (2001). Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance. Developmental Psychology, 37, 715.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J., & Snow, R. E. (1977). Aptitudes and instructional methods: A handbook for research on interactions. Oxford, England: Irvington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dallenbach, K. M. (1914). The effect of practice upon visual apprehension in school children. Part I. Journal of Educational Psychology, 5, 321–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dallenbach, K. M. (1919). The effect of practice upon visual apprehension in the feeble-minded. Journal of Educational Psychology, 10, 61–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deveau, J., Jaeggi, S. M., Zordan, V., Phung, C., & Seitz, A. R. (2015). How to build better memory training games. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 8, 1662–5137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Foroughi, C. K., Monfort, S. S., Paczynski, M., McKnight, P. E., & Greenwood, P. M. (2016). Placebo effects in cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 7470–7474.

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster, J. L., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Draheim, C., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2017). Do the effects of working memory training depend on baseline ability level?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 43, 1677–1689.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldin, A. P., Hermida, M. J., Shalom, D. E., Costa, M. E., Lopez-Rosenfeld, M., Segretin, M. S.,... & Sigman, M. (2014). Far transfer to language and math of a short software-based gaming intervention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 6443–6448.

    Google Scholar 

  • Green, C. S., Bavelier, D., Kramer, A. F., Vinogradov, S., Ansorge, U., Ball, K. K., & Facoetti, A. (2019). Improving methodological standards in behavioral interventions for cognitive enhancement. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 3, 2–29.

    Google Scholar 

  • Guye, S., De Simoni, C., & Von Bastian, C. C. (2017). Do individual differences predict change in cognitive training performance? A latent growth curve modeling approach. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 374–393.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hackman, D. A., & Farah, M. J. (2009). Socioeconomic status and the developing brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 65–73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, J. L., Nelson, R. A., Thomason, M. E., Sternberg, D. A., Katovich, K., Farzin, F., & Scanlon, M. (2015). Enhancing cognitive abilities with comprehensive training: a large, online, randomized, active-controlled trial. PloS one, 10, e0134467.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hendriks, A. J., Hofstee, W. K., & De Raad, B. (1999). The five-factor personality inventory (FFPI). Personality and individual differences, 27, 307–325.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, J. J., Hill, P. L., Payne, B. R., Roberts, B. W., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. (2012). Can an old dog learn (and want to experience) new tricks? Cognitive training increases openness to experience in older adults. Psychology and aging, 27, 286–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Perrig, W. J. (2008). Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,105, 6829–6833.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Jonides, J., & Shah, P. (2011). Short-and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 10081–10086.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2014). The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Memory & Cognition, 42, 464–480.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M. R., Katz, B., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Shah, P. (2020). Exploring N-Back cognitive training for children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 24, 704–719.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karbach, J., & Kray, J. (2009). How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of task-switching training. Developmental Science, 12, 978–990.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karbach, J., & Verhaeghen, P. (2014). Making working memory work a meta-analysis of executive-control and working memory training in older adults. Psychological Science, 25, 2027–2037.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karbach, J., Könen, T., & Spengler, M. (2017). Who benefits the most? Individual differences in the transfer of executive control training across the lifespan. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 394–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, B., & Shah, P. (2017). The role of child socioeconomic status in cognitive training outcomes. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 53, 139–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Katz, B., Jaeggi, S., Buschkuehl, M., Stegman, A., & Shah, P. (2014). Differential effect of motivational features on training improvements in school-based cognitive training. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 8, 242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, B., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2018a). The effect of monetary compensation on cognitive training outcomes. Learning and Motivation, 63, 77–90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz, B., Shah, P., & Meyer, D. E. (2018b). How to play 20 questions with nature and lose: Reflections on 100 years of brain-training research. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115, 9897–9904.

    Google Scholar 

  • Klingberg, T., Fernell, E., Olesen, P. J., Johnson, M., Gustafsson, P., Dahlström, K., Gillberg, C., Forssberg, H., & Westerberg, H. (2005). Computerized training of working memory in children with ADHD-a randomized, controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 177–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Könen, T., & Karbach, J. (2015). The benefits of looking at intraindividual dynamics in cognitive training data. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kramer, A. F., Larish, J. F., & Strayer, D. L. (1995). Training for attentional control in dual task settings: A comparison of young and old adults. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1, 50–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kray, J., & Lindenberger, U. (2000). Adult age differences in task switching. Psychology and Aging, 15, 126–147.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kray, J., Eber, J., & Karbach, J. (2008). Verbal self-instructions in task switching: A compensatory tool for action-control deficits in childhood and old age? Developmental Science, 11, 223–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lei, H., Nahum-Shani, I., Lynch, K., Oslin, D., & Murphy, S. A. (2012). A “SMART” design for building individualized treatment sequences. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 8, 21–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lövdén, M., Brehmer, Y., Li, S. C., & Lindenberger, U. (2012). Training-induced compensation versus magnification of individual differences in memory performance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Melby-Lervåg, M., & Hulme, C. (2013). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 49, 270–291.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C. (2016). Working memory training does not improve performance on measures of intelligence or other measures of “far transfer” evidence from a meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 11, 512–534.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohammed, S., Flores, L., Deveau, J., Hoffing, R. C., Phung, C., Parlett, C. M.,... & Zordan, V. (2017). The benefits and challenges of implementing motivational features to boost cognitive training outcome. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1, 491–507.

    Google Scholar 

  • Munafò, M. R., Nosek, B. A., Bishop, D. V., Button, K. S., Chambers, C. D., Du Sert, N. P., Simonsohn, U., Wagenmakers, E.-J., Ware, J. J., & Ioannidis, J. P. (2017). A manifesto for reproducible science. Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 0021.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pergher, V., Shalchy, M. A., Pahor, A., Van Hulle, M. M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2019). Divergent research methods limit understanding of working memory training. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-019-00134-7.

  • Prins, P. J., Dovis, S., Ponsioen, A., Ten Brink, E., & Van Der Oord, S. (2011). Does computerized working memory training with game elements enhance motivation and training efficacy in children with ADHD? Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 14, 115–122.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raizada, R. D., & Kishiyama, M. M. (2010). Effects of socioeconomic status on brain development, and how cognitive neuroscience may contribute to leveling the playing field. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 4, 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramani, G. B., Jaeggi, S. M., Daubert, E. N., & Buschkuehl, M. (2017). Domain-specific and domain-general training to improve Kindergarten children’s mathematics. Journal of Numerical Cognition, 3, 468–495.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redick, T. S. (2019). The hype cycle of working memory training. Current Directions in Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419848668.

  • Redick, T. S., Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., Hicks, K. L., Fried, D. E., Hambrick, D. Z.,... & Engle, R. W. (2013). No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: a randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 142, 359–379.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rennie, J. P., Zhang, M., Hawkins, E., Bathelt, J., & Astle, D. E. (2019). Mapping differential responses to cognitive training using machine learning. Developmental Science, e12868.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rhodes, R. E., & Katz, B. (2017). Working memory plasticity and aging. Psychology and Aging, 32, 51–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Richmond, L. L., Morrison, A. B., Chein, J. M., & Olson, I. R. (2011). Working memory training and transfer in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 26, 813–822.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salthouse, T. A. (1996). The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychological Review, 103, 403–428.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmiedek, F., Lövdén, M., & Lindenberger, U. (2010). Hundred days of cognitive training enhance broad cognitive abilities in adulthood: Findings from the COGITO study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2, 27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwaighofer, M., Fischer, F., & Bühner, M. (2015). Does working memory training transfer? A meta-analysis including training conditions as moderators. Educational Psychologist, 50, 138–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Segretin, M. S., Lipina, S. J., Hermida, M. J., Sheffield, T. D., Nelson, J. M., Espy, K. A., & Colombo, J. A. (2014). Predictors of cognitive enhancement after training in preschoolers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 205.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snow, R. E. (1991). Aptitude-treatment interaction as a framework for research on individual differences in psychotherapy. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 205–216.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soveri, A., Antfolk, J., Karlsson, L., Salo, B., & Laine, M. (2017). Working memory training revisited: A multi-level meta-analysis of n-back training studies. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 1077–1096.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strobach, T., & Karbach, J. (2016). Cognitive training: An overview of features and applications. New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721419848668.

  • Studer-Luethi, B., Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., & Perrig, W. J. (2012). Influence of neuroticism and conscientiousness on working memory training outcome. Personality and Individual Differences, 53, 44–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Studer-Luethi, B., Bauer, C., & Perrig, W. J. (2016). Working memory training in children: Effectiveness depends on temperament. Memory & Cognition, 44, 171–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, T. W., Waskom, M. L., Garel, K. L., Cardenas-Iniguez, C., Reynolds, G. O., Winter, R., Chang, P., Pollard, K., Lala, N., Alvarez, G. A., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2013). Failure of working memory training to enhance cognition or intelligence. PLoS ONE, 8, e63614.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tsai, N., Buschkuehl, M., Kamarsu, S., Shah, P., Jonides, J., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2018). (Un) Great expectations: The role of placebo effects in cognitive training. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 7, 564–573.

    Google Scholar 

  • Urbánek, T., & Marček, V. (2016). Investigating the effectiveness of working memory training in the context of personality systems interaction theory. Psychological Research Psychologische Forschung, 80, 877–888.

    Google Scholar 

  • Verhaeghen, P., Marcoen, A., & Goossens, L. (1992). Improving memory performance in the aged through mnemonic training: a meta-analytic study. Psychology and Aging, 7, 242–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, C., Jaeggi, S. M., Yang, L., Zhang, T., He, X., Buschkuehl, M., & Zhang, Q. (2019). Narrowing the achievement gap in low-achieving children by targeted executive function training. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 63, 87–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wass, S. V., Scerif, G., & Johnson, M. H. (2012). Training attentional control and working memory–Is younger, better? Developmental Review, 32, 360–387.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiemers, E. A., Redick, T. S., & Morrison, A. B. (2019). The influence of individual differences in cognitive ability on working memory training gains. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 3, 174–185.

    Google Scholar 

  • Willis, S. L. (1989). Improvement with cognitive training: Which old dogs learn what tricks? In L. W. Poon, D. C. Rubin, & B. A. Wilson (Eds.), Everyday cognition in adulthood and late life (Vol. xii,. 708, pp. 545–569). New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511759390.

  • Willis, S. L., & Caskie, G. I. (2013). Reasoning training in the active study how much is needed and who benefits? Journal of Aging and Health, 25, 43S–64S.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Eschen, A., Herzog, C., & Kliegel, M. (2012). Potentials and limits of plasticity induced by working memory training in old-old age. Gerontology, 58, 79–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zinke, K., Zeintl, M., Rose, N. S., Putzmann, J., Pydde, A., & Kliegel, M. (2014). Working memory training and transfer in older adults: Effects of age, baseline performance, and training gains. Developmental Psychology, 50, 304–315.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA

    Benjamin Katz

  2. WestEd, Los Alamitos, CA, USA

    Masha R. Jones

  3. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Priti Shah

  4. MIND Research Institute, Irvine, CA, USA

    Martin Buschkuehl

  5. University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA

    Susanne M. Jaeggi

Authors
  1. Benjamin Katz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Masha R. Jones
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Priti Shah
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Martin Buschkuehl
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Susanne M. Jaeggi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Benjamin Katz .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Medical School Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

    Tilo Strobach

  2. University of Koblenz-Landau, Landau, Germany

    Julia Karbach

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2021 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Katz, B., Jones, M.R., Shah, P., Buschkuehl, M., Jaeggi, S.M. (2021). Individual Differences in Cognitive Training Research. In: Strobach, T., Karbach, J. (eds) Cognitive Training. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39292-5_8

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation