Advertisement

Management of Acute, Severe, and Life-Threatening Exacerbations

  • Angela Marko
  • Elizabeth Pace
  • Kristie R. RossEmail author
Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

Severe acute exacerbations are common in children with asthma. They are troublesome to patients and caregivers, can result in long-term morbidity, and are costly. While severe (requiring emergency room and hospital-based care) and life-threatening (with impending or established respiratory failure requiring intensive care unit-based care) exacerbations can occur in any child with asthma, children with more severe chronic asthma and those with a recent exacerbation are at highest risk. Systemic corticosteroids and beta2-agonists are the primary treatments used, with many adjunctive therapies available although less well studied.

Keywords

Life-threating exacerbation Severe exacerbation Pediatric asthma 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Global Initiative for Asthma. Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention, 2018. www.ginasthma.org.
  2. 2.
    National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. Expert panel report 3 (EPR-3): guidelines for the diagnosis and Management of Asthma-Summary Report 2007. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2007;120(5 Suppl):S94–138. https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/guidelines-for-diagnosis-management-of-asthma. Accessed 21 May 2019.Google Scholar
  3. 3.
    Abu-Kishk I, Polakow-Farkash S, Elizur A. Long-term outcome after pediatric intensive care unit asthma admissions. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2016;37(6):169–75.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Bai TR, Vonk JM, Postma DS, Boezen HM. Severe exacerbations predict excess lung function decline in asthma. Eur Respir J. 2007;30(3):452–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Ivanova JI, Bergman R, Birnbaum HG, Colice GL, Silverman RA, McLaurin K. Effect of asthma exacerbations on health care costs among asthmatic patients with moderate and severe persistent asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(5):1229–35.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Fuhlbrigge A, Peden D, Apter AJ, Boushey HA, Camargo CA, Gern J, et al. Asthma outcomes: exacerbations. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(3):S34–48.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Reddel HK, Taylor DR, Bateman ED, Boulet LP, Boushey HA, Busse WW, et al. An official American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society statement: asthma control and exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2009;180(1):59–99.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC - Asthma - Table 4–1 Current Asthma Prevalence Percents by Age, NHIS, 2015 [Internet]. [cited 5 May 2018]. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/asthma/nhis/2015/table4-1.htm.
  9. 9.
    Akinbami LJ, Schoendorf KC. Trends in childhood asthma: prevalence, health care utilization, and mortality. Pediatrics. 2002;110(2 Pt 1):315–22.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Hunt LW, Silverstein MD, Reed CE, O’Connell EJ, O’Fallon WM, Yunginger JW. Accuracy of the death certificate in a population-based study of asthmatic patients. JAMA. 1993;269(15):1947–52.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Wisniewski JA, McLaughlin AP, Stenger PJ, Patrie J, Brown MA, El-Dahr JM, et al. A comparison of seasonal trends in asthma exacerbations among children from geographic regions with different climates. Allergy Asthma Proc. 2016;37(6):475–81.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Suruki RY, Daugherty JB, Boudiaf N, Albers FC. The frequency of asthma exacerbations and healthcare utilization in patients with asthma from the UK and USA. BMC Pulm Med. 2017;17(1):74.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Alvarez G, Schulzer M, Jung D, FitzGerald J. A systematic review of risk factors associated with near-fatal and fatal asthma. Can Respir J. 2005;12(5):265–70.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Haselkorn T, Zeiger RS, Chipps BE, Mink DR, Szefler SJ, R. Simons FE, et al. Recent asthma exacerbations predict future exacerbations in children with severe or difficult-to-treat asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2009;124(5):921–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Covar RA, Szefler SJ, Zeiger RS, Sorkness CA, Moss M, Mauger DT, et al. Factors associated with asthma exacerbations during a long-term clinical trial of controller medications in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2018;122(4):741–747.e4.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Dolan CM, Fraher KE, Bleecker ER, Borish L, Chipps B, Lou HM, et al. Design and baseline characteristics of the epidemiology and natural history of asthma: outcomes and treatment regimens (TENOR) study: a large cohort of patients with severe or difficult-to-treat asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2004;92(1):32–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Suissa S, Ernst P, Benayoun S, Baltzan M, Cai B. Low-dose inhaled corticosteroids and the prevention of death from asthma. N Engl J Med. 2000 Aug;343(5):332–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    Suissa S, Ernst P. Inhaled corticosteroids: impact on asthma morbidity and mortality. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2001;107(6):937–44.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Denlinger LC, Phillips BR, Ramratnam S, Ross K, Bhakta NR, Cardet JC, et al. Inflammatory and comorbid features of patients with severe asthma and frequent exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;195(3):302–13.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Ducharme FM, Zemek R, Chauhan BF, Gravel J, Chalut D, Poonai N, et al. Factors associated with failure of emergency department management in children with acute moderate or severe asthma: a prospective, multicentre, cohort study. Lancet Respir Med. 2016;4(12):990–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Ito K, Weinberger KR, Robinson GS, Sheffield PE, Lall R, Mathes R, et al. The associations between daily spring pollen counts, over-the-counter allergy medication sales, and asthma syndrome emergency department visits in New York City, 2002-2012. Environ Health. 2015;14(1):71.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Orellano P, Quaranta N, Reynoso J, Balbi B, Vasquez J. Effect of outdoor air pollution on asthma exacerbations in children and adults: systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis. Sun Q, editor. PLoS One. 2017;12(3):e0174050.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Bizzintino J, Lee WM, Laing IA, Vang F, Pappas T, Zhang G, et al. Association between human rhinovirus C and severity of acute asthma in children. Eur Respir J. 2011;37(5):1037–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Murray CS, Poletti G, Kebadze T, Morris J, Woodcock A, Johnston SL, et al. Study of modifiable risk factors for asthma exacerbations: virus infection and allergen exposure increase the risk of asthma hospital admissions in children. Thorax. 2006;61(5):376–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Jartti T, Gern JE. Role of viral infections in the development and exacerbation of asthma in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2017;140(4):895–906.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Esquivel A, Busse WW, Calatroni A, Togias AG, Grindle KG, Bochkov YA, et al. Effects of omalizumab on rhinovirus infections, illnesses, and exacerbations of asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2017;196(8):985–92.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Busse WW, Morgan WJ, Gergen PJ, Mitchell HE, Gern JE, Liu AH, et al. Randomized trial of omalizumab (anti-IgE) for asthma in inner-city children. N Engl J Med. 2011;364(11):1005–15.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Merckx J, Ducharme FM, Martineau C, Zemek R, Gravel J, Chalut D, et al. Respiratory viruses and treatment failure in children with asthma exacerbation. Pediatrics. 2018;142(1):e20174105.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    O’Toole J, Mikulic L, Kaminsky DA. Epidemiology and pulmonary physiology of severe asthma. Immunol Allergy Clin N Am. 2016;36(3):425–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Mauad T, Silva LFF, Santos MA, Grinberg L, Bernardi FDC, Martins MA, et al. Abnormal alveolar attachments with decreased elastic fiber content in distal lung in fatal asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2004;170(8):857–62.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Vuillermin P, South M, Robertson C. Parent-initiated oral corticosteroid therapy for intermittent wheezing illnesses in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Jul;3:CD005311.Google Scholar
  32. 32.
    Rowe BH, Spooner C, Ducharme F, Bretzlaff J, Bota G. Early emergency department treatment of acute asthma with systemic corticosteroids. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2001 Jan;1:CD002178.Google Scholar
  33. 33.
    Bisgaard H, Le Roux P, Bjåmer D, Dymek A, Vermeulen JH, Hultquist C. Budesonide/formoterol maintenance plus reliever therapy: a new strategy in pediatric asthma. Chest. 2006;130(6):1733–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Jackson DJ, Bacharier LB, Mauger DT, Boehmer S, Beigelman A, Chmiel JF, et al. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Quintupling inhaled glucocorticoids to prevent childhood asthma exacerbations. N Engl J Med. 2018;378(10):891–901.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Morse RB, Hall M, Fieldston ES, McGwire G, Anspacher M, Sills MR, et al. Hospital-level compliance with asthma care quality measures at children’s hospitals and subsequent asthma-related outcomes. JAMA. 2011;306(13):1454.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Fassl BA, Nkoy FL, Stone BL, Srivastava R, Simon TD, Uchida DA, et al. The joint commission Children’s asthma care quality measures and asthma readmissions. Pediatrics. 2012;130(3):482–91.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Nievas IFF, Anand KJS. Severe acute asthma exacerbation in children: a stepwise approach for escalating therapy in a pediatric intensive care unit. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2013;18(2):88–104.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Narayanan S, Magruder T, Walley SC, Powers T, Wall TC. Relevance of chest radiography in pediatric inpatients with asthma. J Asthma. 2014;51(7):751–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Nowak RM, Tomlanovich MC, Sarkar DD, Kvale PA, Anderson JA. Arterial blood gases and pulmonary function testing in acute bronchial asthma. Predicting patient outcomes. JAMA. 1983;249(15):2043–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Qureshi F, Pestian J, Davis P, Zaritsky A. Effect of nebulized ipratropium on the hospitalization rates of children with asthma. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(15):1030–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Shim CS, Williams MH. Evaluation of the severity of asthma: patients versus physicians. Am J Med. 1980;68(1):11–3.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Tan CC, McDowell KM, Fenchel M, Szczesniak R, Kercsmar CM. Spirometry use in children hospitalized with asthma. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2014;49(5):451–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Moore PE, Poston JT, Boyer D, Barsky E, Gaffin J, Boyne KB, et al. ATS Core curriculum 2017: part II. Pediatric pulmonary medicine. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2017;14(Suppl 2):S165–81.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Gorelick MH, Stevens MW, Schultz TR, Scribano PV. Performance of a novel clinical score, the pediatric asthma severity score (PASS), in the evaluation of acute asthma. Acad Emerg Med. 2004;11(1):10–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Qureshi F, Zaritsky A, Lakkis H. Efficacy of nebulized ipratropium in severely asthmatic children. Ann Emerg Med. 1997;29(2):205–11.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Ducharme FM, Chalut D, Plotnick L, Savdie C, Kudirka D, Zhang X, et al. The Pediatric Respiratory Assessment Measure: a valid clinical score for assessing acute asthma severity from toddlers to teenagers. J Pediatr. 2008;152(4):476–480.e1.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Arnold DH, Gebretsadik T, Abramo TJ, Moons KG, Sheller JR, Hartert TV. The RAD score: a simple acute asthma severity score compares favorably to more complex scores. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2011;107(1):22–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Biagini Myers JM, Simmons JM, Kercsmar CM, Martin LJ, Pilipenko VV, Austin SR, et al. Heterogeneity in asthma care in a statewide collaborative: the Ohio pediatric asthma repository. Pediatrics. 2015;135(2):271–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Bhogal SK, Bourbeau J, McGillivray D, Benedetti A, Bartlett SJ, Ducharme FM. Adherence to pediatric asthma guidelines in the emergency department: a survey of knowledge, attitudes and behaviour among health care professionals. Can Respir J. 2010;17(4):175–82.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Pardue Jones B, Fleming GM, Otillio JK, Asokan I, Arnold DH. Pediatric acute asthma exacerbations: evaluation and management from emergency department to intensive care unit. J Asthma. 2016;53(6):607–17.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Svedmyr N. Action of corticosteroids on beta-adrenergic receptors. Clin Aspects Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;141(2 Pt 2):S31–8.Google Scholar
  52. 52.
    Keeney GE, Gray MP, Morrison AK, Levas MN, Kessler EA, Hill GD, et al. Dexamethasone for acute asthma exacerbations in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics. 2014;133(3):493–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Normansell R, Kew KM, Mansour G. Different oral corticosteroid regimens for acute asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;5:CD011801.Google Scholar
  54. 54.
    Silverman RA, Osborn H, Runge J, Gallagher EJ, Chiang W, Feldman J, et al. IV magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute severe asthma: a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Chest. 2002;122(2):489–97.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Ciarallo L, Sauer AH, Shannon MW. Intravenous magnesium therapy for moderate to severe pediatric asthma: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Pediatr. 1996;129(6):809–14.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Cheuk DKL, Chau TCH, Lee SL. A meta-analysis on intravenous magnesium sulphate for treating acute asthma. Arch Dis Child. 2005;90(1):74–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Edmonds ML, Milan SJ, Camargo CA Jr, Pollack CV, Rowe BH. Early use of inhaled corticosteroids in the emergency department treatment of acute asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;12:CD002308.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Rodrigo GJ, Castro-Rodriguez JA. Heliox-driven β2-agonists nebulization for children and adults with acute asthma: a systematic review with meta-analysis. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2014;112(1):29–34.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Hamid Q, Song Y, Kotsimbos TC, Minshall E, Bai TR, Hegele RG, et al. Inflammation of small airways in asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1997;100(1):44–51.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Barnes PJ. Effect of corticosteroids on airway hyperresponsiveness. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1990;141(2 Pt 2):S70–6.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Barnes PJ, Adcock I. Anti-inflammatory actions of steroids: molecular mechanisms. Trends Pharmacol Sci. 1993;14(12):436–41.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Camargo CA Jr, Spooner C, Rowe BH. Continuous versus intermittent beta-agonists for acute asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;4:CD001115.Google Scholar
  63. 63.
    Papo MC, Frank J, Thompson AE. A prospective, randomized study of continuous versus intermittent nebulized albuterol for severe status asthmaticus in children. Crit Care Med. 1993;21(10):1479–86.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Cates CJ, Welsh EJ, Rowe BH. Holding chambers (spacers) versus nebulisers for beta-agonist treatment of acute asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;9:CD000052.Google Scholar
  65. 65.
    Shein SL, Speicher RH, Filho JOP, Gaston B, Rotta AT. Contemporary treatment of children with critical and near-fatal asthma. Rev Bras Ter Intensiva. 2016;28(2):167–78.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Doymaz S, Schneider J, Sagy M. Early administration of terbutaline in severe pediatric asthma may reduce incidence of acute respiratory failure. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2014;112(3):207–10.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Craven D, Kercsmar CM, Myers TR, O’Riordan MA, Golonka G, Moore S. Ipratropium bromide plus nebulized albuterol for the treatment of hospitalized children with acute asthma. J Pediatr. 2001;138(1):51–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Shein SL, Farhan O, Morris N, Mahmood N, Alter SJ, Biagini Myers JM, et al. Adjunctive pharmacotherapies in children with asthma exacerbations requiring continuous albuterol therapy: findings from the Ohio pediatric asthma repository. Hosp Pediatr. 2018;8(2):89–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Knightly R, Milan SJ, Hughes R, Knopp-Sihota JA, Rowe BH, Normansell R, et al. Inhaled magnesium sulfate in the treatment of acute asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017;11:CD003898.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Yung M, South M. Randomised controlled trial of aminophylline for severe acute asthma. Arch Dis Child. 1998;79(5):405–10.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Sahay JN, Bell R, Chatterjee SS, Jayaswal R. Comparative study of the effects of intravenous administration of aminophylline, salbutamol and terbutaline in patients suffering and from reversible airways obstruction. Curr Med Res Opin. 1984;9(1):1–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Al-Eyadhy AA, Temsah M-H, Alhaboob AAN, Aldubayan AK, Almousa NA, Alsharidah AM, et al. Asthma changes at a pediatric intensive care unit after 10 years: observational study. Ann Thorac Med. 2015;10(4):243–8.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Papiris S, Kotanidou A, Malagari K, Roussos C. Clinical review: severe asthma. Crit Care. 2002;6(1):30–44.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Oddo M, Feihl F, Schaller M-D, Perret C. Management of mechanical ventilation in acute severe asthma: practical aspects. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32(4):501–10.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Peress L, Sybrecht G, Macklem PT. The mechanism of increase in total lung capacity during acute asthma. Am J Med. 1976;61(2):165–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Pepe PE, Marini JJ. Occult positive end-expiratory pressure in mechanically ventilated patients with airflow obstruction: the auto-PEEP effect. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1982;126(1):166–70.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Schibler A, Pham TMT, Dunster KR, Foster K, Barlow A, Gibbons K, et al. Reduced intubation rates for infants after introduction of high-flow nasal prong oxygen delivery. Intensive Care Med. 2011;37(5):847–52.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Baudin F, Buisson A, Vanel B, Massenavette B, Pouyau R, Javouhey E. Nasal high flow in management of children with status asthmaticus: a retrospective observational study. Ann Intensive Care. 2017;7(1):55.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Milési C, Baleine J, Matecki S, Durand S, Combes C, Novais ARB, et al. Is treatment with a high flow nasal cannula effective in acute viral bronchiolitis? A physiologic study. Intensive Care Med. 2013;39(6):1088–94.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Baudin F, Gagnon S, Crulli B, Proulx F, Jouvet P, Emeriaud G. Modalities and complications associated with the use of high-flow nasal cannula: experience in a pediatric ICU. Respir Care. 2016;61(10):1305–10.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    Evans D, Hoyle D, Anas N, Mink R. Continuous albuterol delivery via high-flow nasal cannula versus aerosol MASK in status asthmaticus (abstract 983). Crit Care Med. 2016;44(12):322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Wade A, Chang C. Evaluation and treatment of critical asthma syndrome in children. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 2015;48(1):66–83.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Pavone M, Verrillo E, Caldarelli V, Ullmann N, Cutrera R. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation in children. Early Hum Dev. 2013;89(Suppl 3):S25–31.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Pollack CV Jr, Fleisch KB, Dowsey K. Treatment of acute bronchospasm with β-adrenergic agonist aerosols delivered by a nasal bilevel positive airway pressure circuit. Ann Emerg Med. 1995;26(5):552–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Stather DR, Stewart TE. Clinical review: mechanical ventilation in severe asthma. Crit Care. 2005;9(6):581–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Tobin MJ, Lodato RF. PEEP, auto-PEEP, and waterfalls. Chest. 1989;96(3):449–51.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Sarnaik AA, Sarnaik AP. Noninvasive ventilation in pediatric status asthmaticus: sound physiologic rationale but is it really safe, effective, and cost-efficient? Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(4):484–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Venkatraman R, Hungerford JL, Hall MW, Moore-Clingenpeel M, Tobias JD. Dexmedetomidine for sedation during noninvasive ventilation in pediatric patients. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2017;18(9):831–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Murase K, Tomii K, Chin K, Tsuboi T, Sakurai A, Tachikawa R, et al. The use of non-invasive ventilation for life-threatening asthma attacks: changes in the need for intubation. Respirology. 2010;15(4):714–20.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Basnet S, Mander G, Andoh J, Klaska H, Verhulst S, Koirala J. Safety, efficacy, and tolerability of early initiation of noninvasive positive pressure ventilation in pediatric patients admitted with status asthmaticus: A pilot study. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(4):393–8.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Stefan MS, Nathanson BH, Lagu T, Priya A, Pekow PS, Steingrub JS, et al. Outcomes of noninvasive and invasive ventilation in patients hospitalized with asthma exacerbation. Ann Am Thorac Soc. 2016;13(7):1096–104.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Lim WJ, Mohammed Akram R, Carson KV, Mysore S, Labiszewski NA, Wedzicha JA, et al. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation for treatment of respiratory failure due to severe acute exacerbations of asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;12:CD004360.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Rosengarten PL, Tuxen DV, Dziukas L, Scheinkestel C, Merrett K, Bowes G. Circulatory arrest induced by intermittent positive pressure ventilation in a patient with severe asthma. Anaesth Intensive Care. 1991;19(1):118–21.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    Korang SK, Feinberg J, Wetterslev J, Jakobsen JC. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation for acute asthma in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2016;9:CD012067.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Georgopoulos D, Kondili E, Prinianakis G. How to set the ventilator in asthma. Monaldi Arch Chest Dis. 2000;55(1):74–83.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Bratton SL, Newth CJL, Zuppa AF, Moler FW, Meert KL, Berg RA, et al. Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development collaborative pediatric critical care research network. Critical care for pediatric asthma: wide care variability and challenges for study. Pediatr Crit Care Med. 2012;13(4):407–14.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Rampa S, Allareddy V, Asad R, Nalliah RP, Allareddy V, Rotta AT. Outcomes of invasive mechanical ventilation in children and adolescents hospitalized due to status asthmaticus in United States: a population based study. J Asthma. 2015;52(4):423–30.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Tuxen DV, Lane S. The effects of ventilatory pattern on hyperinflation, airway pressures, and circulation in mechanical ventilation of patients with severe air-flow obstruction. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987;136(4):872–9.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Darioli R, Perret C. Mechanical controlled hypoventilation in status asthmaticus. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1984;129(3):385–7.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Sato T, Hirota K, Matsuki A, Zsigmond EK, Rabito SF. The role of the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor in the relaxant effect of ketamine on tracheal smooth muscle. Anesth Analg. 1998;87(6):1383–8.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Howton JC, Rose J, Duffy S, Zoltanski T, Levitt MA. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of intravenous ketamine in acute asthma. Ann Emerg Med. 1996;27(2):170–5.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Youssef-Ahmed MZ, Silver P, Nimkoff L, Sagy M. Continuous infusion of ketamine in mechanically ventilated children with refractory bronchospasm. Intensive Care Med. 1996;22(9):972–6.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Patel SB, Kress JP. Sedation and analgesia in the mechanically ventilated patient. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185(5):486–97.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Fischer JR, Baer RK. Acute myopathy associated with combined use of corticosteroids and neuromuscular blocking agents. Ann Pharmacother. 1996;30(12):1437–45.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Murray MJ, Brull SJ, Bolton CF. Brief review: nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking drugs and critical illness myopathy. Can J Anaesth. 2006;53(11):1148–56.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Carrié S, Anderson TA. Volatile anesthetics for status asthmaticus in pediatric patients: a comprehensive review and case series. Paediatr Anaesth. 2015;25(5):460–7.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Shankar V, Churchwell KB, Deshpande JK. Isoflurane therapy for severe refractory status asthmaticus in children. Intensive Care Med. 2006;32(6):927–33.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Yeo HJ, Kim D, Jeon D, Kim YS, Rycus P, Cho WH. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for life-threatening asthma refractory to mechanical ventilation: analysis of the extracorporeal life support organization registry. Crit Care. 2017;21(1):297.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Kohlberg-Davis R, Carroll C, Schlott H, Sala K, Cowl A. Lung recovery and survival after extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for near fatal pediatric asthma (abstract). Chest. 2017;152(4 Suppl):A216.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Mikkelsen ME, Woo YJ, Sager JS, Fuchs BD, Christie JD. Outcomes using extracorporeal life support for adult respiratory failure due to status asthmaticus. ASAIO J. 2009;55(1):47–52.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Zabrocki LA, Brogan TV, Statler KD, Poss WB, Rollins MD, Bratton SL. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for pediatric respiratory failure: survival and predictors of mortality. Crit Care Med. 2011;39(2):364–70.CrossRefPubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

Authors and Affiliations

  • Angela Marko
    • 1
  • Elizabeth Pace
    • 2
  • Kristie R. Ross
    • 1
    Email author
  1. 1.Division of Pediatric Pulmonology, Allergy/Immunology, and Sleep MedicineUH Rainbow Babies and Children’s Hospital, Case Western Reserve UniversityClevelandUSA
  2. 2.Division of Pediatric Critical Care UH Rainbow Babies and Children’s Hospital, Case Western Reserve UniversityClevelandUSA

Personalised recommendations

Cite chapter

Buy options