The History of Meteorology: to 1800 pp 80-98 | Cite as
The Hygrometer and Other Meteorological Instruments
Abstract
As was noted in Chapter I, the ancient Greeks had a fairly accurate grasp of the hydrological cycle—the ascent of water from the lakes, rivers, and oceans into the atmosphere, and its return again to the earth as precipitation. One problem with this cyclic concept was that at some stage in the process the water became invisible. To resolve this difficulty, Aristotle and other Greek natural philosophers assumed that some, but not all, of the ascending water turned into air.1 The reason for the “hedge” on not having all of the rising water turning into air was that Aristotle realized that clouds consisted of drops of water.2
Preview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
- 1.Aristotle, Meteorologica, Trans. H.D.P. Lee (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952), pp. 73–74.Google Scholar
- 2.Ibid., p. 71.Google Scholar
- 3.René Descartes, “Les Météores,” Discours de la Methodechrw(133) (Paris: Charles Angot, 1668), pp. 227–230.Google Scholar
- 4.For a translation of the pertinent paragraphs of this work, see James R. Newman, ed., The World of Mathematics, 4 Vols., (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956), 2: 774–777.Google Scholar
- 5.W.E. Knowles Middleton. Invention of the Meteorological Instruments (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1969), p. 82. For a more thorough discussion of the developing theories concerned with water vapor. see W.E.K. Middleton, A History of the Theories of Rain (London: 1965), especially Chapters 1, 2, and 7.Google Scholar
- 6.Harvey A. Zinszer, “Meteorological Milepost,” Scientific Monthly 58 (1944): 261.Google Scholar
- 7.Florian Cajori, A History of Physics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1906), p. 48.Google Scholar
- 8.A picture of this instrument, along with a discussion of it, appeared in the work: Joachim d’Alencé, Curieux traité de mathematigue, ou par le moyen de trois instruments, a sauvoir, du barometre,chrw(133) (Paris: 1713), pp. 117–120.Google Scholar
- 9.Middleton, Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, p. 86.Google Scholar
- 10.There is some evidence to indicate that A. Mizaldus observed this property as early as 1554; see G. J. Symons, “A Contribution to the History of Hygrometers,” Quart. Jour. of the Roy. Meteor. Soc. 7 (1881): 161.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 11.Robert Hooke, Micrographia (London: Martyn and Allestry, 1665), pp. 147–152.Google Scholar
- 12.Middleton, Invention, pp. 86–88.Google Scholar
- 13.Friedrich Lowenhaupt, “Johann Heinrich Lambert als Naturforscher,” Johann Heinrich Lambert: Leistung und Leben (Mulhausen: Braun & Co., 1943), p. 35.Google Scholar
- 14.G.J. Symons, “A Contribution to the History of Hygrometers,” Quart. Jour. of the Roy. Meteor. Soc. 7 (1881): 162.Google Scholar
- 15.Johann H. Lambert, “Suit de L’Essai d’Hygrometrie,” Nouveaux Mémoires de L’Académie Royal Des Sciences (Berlin, 1772): 65–102.Google Scholar
- 16.Ibid., p. 75.Google Scholar
- 17.A. Wolf, A History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the 18th Century (New York: The Macmillan Co., 1939), p. 335.Google Scholar
- 18.Symons, op. cit., p. 166. This type of hygrometer was first suggested by Guillaume Amontons in 1687. See W.E.K. Middleton, Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, pp. 48–99.Google Scholar
- 19.Wolf, op. cit., p. 334.Google Scholar
- 20.Horace B. De Saussure, Essais sur l’Hygrométrie (Neuchatel: 1783).Google Scholar
- 21.Wolf, op. cit., p. 327.Google Scholar
- 22.For a discussion of this debate, see Middleton, Invention of the Meteorological Instruments, pp. 103–110.Google Scholar
- 23.Middleton, Invention, p. 110.Google Scholar
- 24.Charles Le Roy, Mém. Acad. Roy. des Sci. Paris (1751), pp. 481–518.Google Scholar
- 25.Ibid., p. 490.Google Scholar
- 26.Symons, op. cit. p. 166.Google Scholar
- 27.William Cullen, “An Essay on the Cold produced by Evaporating Fluids, and of some other means of producing Cold,” Edinburgh Philosophical and Literary Essays II (1755): 159–171.Google Scholar
- 28.Middleton, Invention, p. 122.Google Scholar
- 29.Wolf, op. cit., p. 341.Google Scholar
- 30.Symons, op. cit., p. 170.Google Scholar
- 31.Middleton, Invention, pp. 126–128.Google Scholar
- 32.Symons, op. cit., p. 181.Google Scholar
- 33.Geoffrey Reynolds, “A History of Rain Gauges,” Weather 20 (April, 1965): 106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 34.For the related passage in this work Arthastra, see Josindra Nath Sammadar notes in Quart. Jour. of the Roy. Meteor. Soc. 38 (1912): 65–66.Google Scholar
- 35.Middleton, Invention, p. 134.Google Scholar
- 36.Ibid., pp. 134–135.Google Scholar
- 37.Castelli is sometimes credited with the invention of the rain gauge; see L. Dufour, “Les grandes époques de l’histoire de la météorologie,” Ciel et Terre 59 (1943): 358.Google Scholar
- 38.Galileo, Opere, ed. nuz., 20 vols., (Florence: 1890–1909), 18:62–66.Google Scholar
- 39.Ibid., p. 62.Google Scholar
- 40.G.J. Symons, “A Contribution to the History of Rain Gauges,” Quart. Jour. of the Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 18 (1891): 128.Google Scholar
- 41.Richard Townley, Phil. Trans. 18 (1694): 52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 42.Middleton, Invention, p. 137.Google Scholar
- 43.A. Wolf, A History of Science, Technology, and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th Centuries (London: Allen & Unwin, 1935), p. 310.Google Scholar
- 44.Ibid. Google Scholar
- 45.The common means of measuring the rainfall at this time was by weighing it, i.e., the Gresham College Rain Gauge.Google Scholar
- 46.See the short note by Horsley in Phil. Trans. 32 (1723): 328–329.Google Scholar
- 47.The rotational anemometer was a product of the nineteenth century; for a discussion of the development of the rain gauge and atmometer in the nineteenth century, see Middleton, Invention, pp. 141–174, 212–224.Google Scholar
- 48.Middleton, Invention, p. 182.Google Scholar
- 49.Leon Battista Alberti. Opuscoli moralichrw(133) tradottichrw(133) da cosimo Bartoli (Venice, 1568), p. 253.Google Scholar
- 50.Ivor B. Hart, The Mechanical Inventions of Leonardo da Vinci (London: 1925), pp. 25–26.Google Scholar
- 51.J. Oliver, “An Early Self-Recording Pressure-Plate Anemometer,” Weather 12 (1957): 16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 52.Middleton, Invention, pp. 182–183.Google Scholar
- 53.J.K. Laughton, “Historical Sketch of Anemometry and Anemometers,” Quart. Jour. of the Roy. Meteor. Soc. 8 (1882): 162–164.Google Scholar
- 54.S. Santorre, Sanctorii Sanctorii lustinopolitanichrw(133) commentaria in primam fen priori libri canonic Auicennaechrw(133), (Venice: 1625), Col., pp. 245–245.Google Scholar
- 55.P. Bouguer, Traité du navire, de sa construction, et de ses mouvemens (Paris: 1746), pp. 359–360.Google Scholar
- 56.One reason for the great interest in the wind’s pressure was that, especially for sailors, the pressure of the wind was considered its most important property.Google Scholar
- 57.Middleton, Invention, pp. 191–193.Google Scholar
- 58.James Lind, Phil. Trans. 65 (1775): 353–365.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- 59.See Middleton, Invention, pp. 196–201.Google Scholar
- 60.The “Tower of the Winds” contained a crude form of a wind vane on its top.Google Scholar
- 61.Middleton, Invention, pp. 248–250.Google Scholar
- 62.R.T. Gunther, Early Science in Oxford, (London: Dawsons of Pall Mall, 1967), 7: 519–523.Google Scholar