Viruses

Chapter
Part of the Contemporary Hematology book series (CH)

Abstract

Viral infections are an important and often unrecognized component of disease in immunocompromised patients. The diagnosis and management of viral infections have expanded largely because of new quantitative molecular diagnostic assays. Well-recognized pathogens such as herpes simplex virus (HSV), cytomegalovirus (CMV), and respiratory viruses have been joined by newly recognized pathogens such as BK virus, human herpesvirus-6 (HHV-6), and human metapneumovirus in this highly susceptible patient population. The role of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) in lymphoproliferative diseases also continue to be clarified. As a result, the management of viral infections in patients with hematologic malignancies continues to be a growing challenge for the clinician.

Keywords

Antivirals Cytomegalovirus Herpes viruses Hematological malignancy Respiratory viruses Epstein-Barr virus Polyoma virus Adenovirus Viral infections  

References

  1. 1.
    Schillinger JA, Xu F, Sternberg MR et al (2004) National seroprevalence and trends in herpes simplex virus type 1 in the United States, 1976–1994. Sex Transm Dis 31(12):753–60PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    Xu F, Sternberg MR, Kottiri BJ et al (2006) Trends in herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 seroprevalence in the United States. JAMA 296(8):964–73PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. 3.
    Herget GW, Riede UN, Schmitt-Graff A, Lubbert M, Neumann-Haefelin D, Kohler G (2005) Generalized herpes simplex virus infection in an immunocompromised patient – report of a case and review of the literature. Pathol Res Pract 201(2):123–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. 4.
    Roubalova K, Suchankova A, Vitek A, Sajdova J (2000) Presence of herpes simplex virus (HSV) in peripheral leukocytes of patient who developed active HSV infection after bone marrow transplantation. J Clin Virol 17(1):37–42PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Kaufman B, Gandhi SA, Louie E, Rizzi R, Illei P (1997) Herpes simplex virus hepatitis: case report and review. Clin Infect Dis 24(3):334–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. 6.
    Taplitz RA, Jordan MC (2002) Pneumonia caused by herpesviruses in recipients of hematopoietic cell transplants. Semin Respir Infect 17(2):121–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Jacome DE, Yanez GF (1980) Herpes genitalis and neurogenic bladder and bowel. J Urol 124(5):752PubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Shturman-Ellstein R, Borkowsky W, Fish I, Gershon AA (1976) Myelitis associated with genital herpes in a child. J Pediatr 88(3):523PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Gonen C, Uner A, Cetinkaya Y, Hascelik G, Haznedaroglu I (2006) Tonsillar abscess formation due to herpes simplex type-1 in a severely immunocompromised stem cell transplant patient with chronic myeloid leukemia. Transpl Infect Dis 8(3):166–70PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Higgins JP, Warnke RA (1999) Herpes lymphadenitis in association with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Cancer 86(7):1210–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Mercadal S, Martinez A, Nomdedeu B et al (2006) Herpes simplex and Epstein-Barr virus lymphadenitis in a patient with chronic lymphocytic leukemia treated with fludarabine. Eur J Haematol 77(5):442–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Iwamasa T, Utsumi Y, Sakuda H et al (1989) Two cases of necrotizing myelopathy associated with malignancy caused by herpes simplex virus type 2. Acta Neuropathol (Berl) 78(3):252–7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Lakeman FD, Whitley RJ (1995) Diagnosis of herpes simplex encephalitis: application of polymerase chain reaction to cerebrospinal fluid from brain-biopsied patients and correlation with disease. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases Collaborative Antiviral Study Group. J Infect Dis 171(4):857–63PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Kennedy PG (2005) Viral encephalitis. J Neurol 252(3):268–72PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Gargiulo F, De Francesco MA, Nascimbeni G et al (2003) Polymerase chain reaction as a rapid diagnostic tool for therapy of acute retinal necrosis syndrome. J Med Virol 69(3):397–400PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. 16.
    Skoldenberg B, Forsgren M, Alestig K et al (1984) Acyclovir versus vidarabine in herpes simplex encephalitis. Randomised multicentre study in consecutive Swedish patients. Lancet 2(8405):707–11PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. 17.
    Whitley RJ, Alford CA, Hirsch MS et al (1986) Vidarabine versus acyclovir therapy in herpes simplex encephalitis. N Engl J Med 314(3):144–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. 18.
    VanLandingham KE, Marsteller HB, Ross GW, Hayden FG (1988) Relapse of herpes simplex encephalitis after conventional acyclovir therapy. JAMA 259(7):1051–3PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  19. 19.
    Valencia I, Miles DK, Melvin J et al (2004) Relapse of herpes encephalitis after acyclovir therapy: report of two new cases and review of the literature. Neuropediatrics 35(6):371–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    (2005) Drugs for non-HIV viral infections. Treat Guidel Med Lett 3(32):23–32Google Scholar
  21. 21.
    Eisen D, Essell J, Broun ER, Sigmund D, DeVoe M (2003) Clinical utility of oral valacyclovir compared with oral acyclovir for the prevention of herpes simplex virus mucositis following autologous bone marrow transplantation or stem cell rescue therapy. Bone Marrow Transplant 31(1):51–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. 22.
    Liesveld JL, Abboud CN, Ifthikharuddin JJ et al (2002) Oral valacyclovir versus intravenous acyclovir in preventing herpes simplex virus infections in autologous stem cell transplant recipients. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 8(12):662–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. 23.
    Meyer PA, Seward JF, Jumaan AO, Wharton M (2000) Varicella mortality: trends before vaccine licensure in the United States, 1970–1994. J Infect Dis 182(2):383–90PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. 24.
    Feldman S, Hughes WT, Daniel CB (1975) Varicella in children with cancer: seventy-seven cases. Pediatrics 56(3):388–97PubMedGoogle Scholar
  25. 25.
    Kilgore PE, Kruszon-Moran D, Seward JF et al (2003) Varicella in Americans from NHANES III: implications for control through routine immunization. J Med Virol 70(Suppl 1):S111–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. 26.
    Heininger U, Seward JF (2006) Varicella. Lancet 368(9544):1365–76PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Bonhoeffer J, Baer G, Muehleisen B et al (2005) Prospective surveillance of hospitalisations associated with varicella-zoster virus infections in children and adolescents. Eur J Pediatr 164(6):366–70PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Krah DL (1996) Assays for antibodies to varicella-zoster virus. Infect Dis Clin North Am 10(3):507–27PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. 29.
    Josephson A, Gombert ME (1988) Airborne transmission of nosocomial varicella from localized zoster. J Infect Dis 158(1):238–41PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Gregoire SM, van Pesch V, Goffette S, Peeters A, Sindic CJ (2006) Polymerase chain reaction analysis and oligoclonal antibody in the cerebrospinal fluid from 34 patients with varicella-zoster virus infection of the nervous system. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 77(8):938–42PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Nagel MA, Forghani B, Mahalingam R et al (2007) The value of detecting anti-VZV IgG antibody in CSF to diagnose VZV vasculopathy. Neurology 68(13):1069–73PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Quinlivan M, Gershon AA, Steinberg SP, Breuer J (2005) An evaluation of single nucleotide polymorphisms used to differentiate vaccine and wild type strains of varicella-zoster virus. J Med Virol 75(1):174–80PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    (1999) Control CfD. Prevention of Varicella. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 48:1–6Google Scholar
  34. 34.
    Garner JS (1996) Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 17(1):53–80PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Boeckh M, Kim HW, Flowers ME, Meyers JD, Bowden RA (2006) Long-term acyclovir for prevention of varicella zoster virus disease after allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplantation – a randomized double-blind placebo-controlled study. Blood 107(5):1800–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Staras SA, Dollard SC, Radford KW, Flanders WD, Pass RF, Cannon MJ (2006) Seroprevalence of cytomegalovirus infection in the United States, 1988–1994. Clin Infect Dis 43(9):1143–51PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Spector SA, Hirata KK, Newman TR (1984) Identification of multiple cytomegalovirus strains in homosexual men with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. J Infect Dis 150(6):953–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Nguyen Q, Estey E, Raad I et al (2001) Cytomegalovirus pneumonia in adults with leukemia: an emerging problem. Clin Infect Dis 32(4):539–45PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Bigio EH, Haque AK (1989) Disseminated cytomegalovirus infection presenting with acalculous cholecystitis and acute pancreatitis. Arch Pathol Lab Med 113(11):1287–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    Zeiser R, Grullich C, Bertz H et al (2004) Late cytomegalovirus polyradiculopathy following haploidentical CD34+-selected hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 33(2):243–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Hernandez-Boluda JC, Lis MJ, Goterris R et al (2005) Guillain-Barre syndrome associated with cytomegalovirus infection after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Transpl Infect Dis 7(2):93–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Spach DH, Bauwens JE, Myerson D, Mustafa MM, Bowden RA (1993) Cytomegalovirus-induced hemorrhagic cystitis following bone marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 16(1):142–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Tutuncuoglu SO, Yanovich S, Ozdemirli M (2005) CMV-induced hemorrhagic cystitis as a complication of peripheral blood stem cell transplantation: case report. Bone Marrow Transplant 36(3):265–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Nguyen DD, Cao TM, Dugan K, Starcher SA, Fechter RL, Coutre SE (2002) Cytomegalovirus viremia during Campath-1H therapy for relapsed and refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia and prolymphocytic leukemia. Clin Lymphoma 3(2):105–10PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Faderl S, Thomas DA, O’Brien S et al (2003) Experience with alemtuzumab plus rituximab in patients with relapsed and refractory lymphoid malignancies. Blood 101(9):3413–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Martin SI, Marty FM, Fiumara K, Treon SP, Gribben JG, Baden LR (2006) Infectious complications associated with alemtuzumab use for lymphoproliferative disorders. Clin Infect Dis 43(1):16–24PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Zurlo JJ, O’Neill D, Polis MA et al (1993) Lack of clinical utility of cytomegalovirus blood and urine cultures in patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 118(1):12–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Bek B, Boeckh M, Lepenies J et al (1996) High-level sensitivity of quantitative pp 65 cytomegalovirus (CMV) antigenemia assay for diagnosis of CMV disease in AIDS patients and follow-up. J Clin Microbiol 34(2):457–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Brytting M, Xu W, Wahren B, Sundqvist VA (1992) Cytomegalovirus DNA detection in sera from patients with active cytomegalovirus infections. J Clin Microbiol 30(8):1937–41PubMedGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Witt DJ, Kemper M, Stead A et al (2000) Analytical performance and clinical utility of a nucleic acid sequence-based amplification assay for detection of cytomegalovirus infection. J Clin Microbiol 38(11):3994–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Boeckh M, Gallez-Hawkins GM, Myerson D, Zaia JA, Bowden RA (1997) Plasma polymerase chain reaction for cytomegalovirus DNA after allogeneic marrow transplantation: comparison with polymerase chain reaction using peripheral blood leukocytes, pp 65 antigenemia, and viral culture. Transplantation 64(1):108–13PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Caliendo AM, St George K, Allega J, Bullotta AC, Gilbane L, Rinaldo CR (2002) Distinguishing cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection and disease with CMV nucleic acid assays. J Clin Microbiol 40(5):1581–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Caliendo AM, St George K, Kao SY et al (2000) Comparison of quantitative cytomegalovirus (CMV) PCR in plasma and CMV antigenemia assay: clinical utility of the prototype AMPLICOR CMV MONITOR test in transplant recipients. J Clin Microbiol 38(6):2122–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Biron KK (2006) Antiviral drugs for cytomegalovirus diseases. Antiviral Res 71(2–3):154–63PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    (2000) Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 6(6a):659–713; 5; 7–27; quiz 29–33Google Scholar
  56. 56.
    Avery RK, Bolwell BJ, Yen-Lieberman B et al (2004) Use of leflunomide in an allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipient with refractory cytomegalovirus infection. Bone Marrow Transplant 34(12):1071–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Cvetkovic RS, Wellington K (2005) Valganciclovir: a review of its use in the management of CMV infection and disease in immunocompromised patients. Drugs 65(6):859–78PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Foulongne V, Turriere C, Diafouka F, Abraham B, Lastere S, Segondy M (2004) Ganciclovir resistance mutations in UL97 and UL54 genes of Human cytomegalovirus isolates resistant to ganciclovir. Acta Virol 48(1):51–5PubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Boeckh M, Leisenring W, Riddell SR et al (2003) Late cytomegalovirus disease and mortality in recipients of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplants: importance of viral load and T-cell immunity. Blood 101(2):407–14PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Goodrich JM, Bowden RA, Fisher L, Keller C, Schoch G, Meyers JD (1993) Ganciclovir prophylaxis to prevent cytomegalovirus disease after allogeneic marrow transplant. Ann Intern Med 118(3):173–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. 61.
    Prentice HG, Gluckman E, Powles RL et al (1997) Long-term survival in allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients following acyclovir prophylaxis for CMV infection. The European Acyclovir for CMV Prophylaxis Study Group. Bone Marrow Transplant 19(2):129–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Ljungman P, de La Camara R, Milpied N et al (2002) Randomized study of valacyclovir as prophylaxis against cytomegalovirus reactivation in recipients of allogeneic bone marrow transplants. Blood 99(8):3050–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Wade JC (2006) Viral infections in patients with hematological malignancies. Hematology Am Soc Hematol Educ Program 368–74Google Scholar
  64. 64.
    Akashi K, Eizuru Y, Sumiyoshi Y et al (1993) Brief report: severe infectious mononucleosis-like syndrome and primary human herpesvirus 6 infection in an adult. N Engl J Med 329(3):168–71PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Maric I, Bryant R, Abu-Asab M et al (2004) Human herpesvirus-6-associated acute lymphadenitis in immunocompetent adults. Mod Pathol 17(11):1427–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Cone RW, Huang ML, Hackman RC (1994) Human herpesvirus 6 and pneumonia. Leuk Lymphoma 15(3–4):235–41PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Kuribayashi K, Matsunaga T, Iyama S et al (2006) Human herpesvirus-6 hepatitis associated with cyclosporine-A encephalitis after bone marrow transplantation for chronic myeloid leukemia. Intern Med 45(7):475–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    Drobyski WR, Knox KK, Majewski D, Carrigan DR (1994) Brief report: fatal encephalitis due to variant B human herpesvirus-6 infection in a bone marrow-transplant recipient. N Engl J Med 330(19):1356–60PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Tiacci E, Luppi M, Barozzi P et al (2000) Fatal herpesvirus-6 encephalitis in a recipient of a T-cell-depleted peripheral blood stem cell transplant from a 3-loci mismatched related donor. Haematologica 85(1):94–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Bethge W, Beck R, Jahn G, Mundinger P, Kanz L, Einsele H (1999) Successful treatment of human herpesvirus-6 encephalitis after bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 24(11):1245–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Drobyski WR, Dunne WM, Burd EM et al (1993) Human herpesvirus-6 (HHV-6) infection in allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipients: evidence of a marrow-suppressive role for HHV-6 in vivo. J Infect Dis 167(3):735–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Hentrich M, Oruzio D, Jager G et al (2005) Impact of human herpesvirus-6 after haematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Br J Haematol 128(1):66–72PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. 73.
    Ogata M, Kikuchi H, Satou T et al (2006) Human herpesvirus 6 DNA in plasma after allogeneic stem cell transplantation: incidence and clinical significance. J Infect Dis 193(1):68–79PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Chan PK, Chik KW, To KF et al (2002) Case report: human herpesvirus 7 associated fatal encephalitis in a peripheral blood stem cell transplant recipient. J Med Virol 66(4):493–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Ward KN, White RP, Mackinnon S, Hanna M (2002) Human herpesvirus-7 infection of the CNS with acute myelitis in an adult bone marrow recipient. Bone Marrow Transplant 30(12):983–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Yoshikawa T, Yoshida J, Hamaguchi M et al (2003) Human herpesvirus 7-associated meningitis and optic neuritis in a patient after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. J Med Virol 70(3):440–3PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Maeda Y, Teshima T, Yamada M et al (1999) Monitoring of human herpesviruses after allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation and bone marrow transplantation. Br J Haematol 105(1):295–302PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Suga S, Yoshikawa T, Asano Y et al (1992) IgM neutralizing antibody responses to human herpesvirus-6 in patients with exanthem subitum or organ transplantation. Microbiol Immunol 36(5):495–506PubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Ward KN, Couto Parada X, Passas J, Thiruchelvam AD (2002) Evaluation of the specificity and sensitivity of indirect immunofluorescence tests for IgG to human herpesviruses-6 and -7. J Virol Methods 106(1):107–13PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. 80.
    Birnbaum T, Padovan CS, Sporer B et al (2005) Severe meningoencephalitis caused by human herpesvirus 6 type B in an immunocompetent woman treated with ganciclovir. Clin Infect Dis 40(6):887–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. 81.
    De Bolle L, Manichanh C, Agut H, De Clercq E, Naesens L (2004) Human herpesvirus 6 DNA polymerase: enzymatic parameters, sensitivity to ganciclovir and determination of the role of the A961V mutation in HHV-6 ganciclovir resistance. Antiviral Res 64(1):17–25PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. 82.
    Black JB, Burns DA, Goldsmith CS et al (1997) Biologic properties of human herpesvirus 7 strain SB. Virus Res 52(1):25–41PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. 83.
    Zhang Y, Schols D, De Clercq E (1999) Selective activity of various antiviral compounds against HHV-7 infection. Antiviral Res 43(1):23–35PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  84. 84.
    Epstein MA, Achong BG, Barr YM (1964) Virus particles in cultured lymphoblasts from Burkitt’s lymphoma. Lancet 15:702–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. 85.
    Volpi A (2004) Epstein-Barr virus and human herpesvirus type 8 infections of the central nervous system. Herpes 11(Suppl 2):120A–7APubMedGoogle Scholar
  86. 86.
    Gruhn B, Meerbach A, Egerer R et al (1999) Successful treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-induced transverse myelitis with ganciclovir and cytomegalovirus hyperimmune globulin following unrelated bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 24(12):1355–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. 87.
    Corssmit EP, Leverstein-van Hall MA, Portegies P, Bakker P (1997) Severe neurological complications in association with Epstein-Barr virus infection. J Neurovirol 3(6):460–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. 88.
    Mueller GA, Pickoff AS (2003) Pediatric lymphocytic interstitial pneumonitis in an HIV-negative child with pulmonary Epstein-Barr virus infection. Pediatr Pulmonol 36(5):447–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. 89.
    Fujiwara M, Shimozono H, Ono H et al (2003) Polyclonal proliferation of lymphocytes containing the epstein-barr virus genome in a patient dying of myocarditis in chronic active Epstein-Barr virus infection. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol 25(1):85–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. 90.
    Epstein JB, Sherlock CH, Greenspan JS (1991) Hairy leukoplakia-like lesions following bone-marrow transplantation. AIDS 5(1):101–2PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  91. 91.
    Linderholm M, Boman J, Juto P, Linde A (1994) Comparative evaluation of nine kits for rapid diagnosis of infectious mononucleosis and Epstein-Barr virus-specific serology. J Clin Microbiol 32(1):259–61PubMedGoogle Scholar
  92. 92.
    Klutts JS, Liao RS, Dunne WM Jr, Gronowski AM (2004) Evaluation of a multiplexed bead assay for assessment of Epstein-Barr virus immunologic status. J Clin Microbiol 42(11):4996–5000PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. 93.
    Carpentier L, Tapiero B, Alvarez F, Viau C, Alfieri C (2003) Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) early-antigen serologic testing in conjunction with peripheral blood EBV DNA load as a marker for risk of posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disease. J Infect Dis 188(12):1853–64PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. 94.
    van Esser JW, Niesters HG, van der Holt B et al (2002) Prevention of Epstein-Barr virus-lymphoproliferative disease by molecular monitoring and preemptive rituximab in high-risk patients after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Blood 99(12):4364–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. 95.
    Niedobitek G, Herbst H (2006) In situ detection of Epstein-Barr virus and phenotype determination of EBV-infected cells. Methods Mol Biol 326:115–37PubMedGoogle Scholar
  96. 96.
    Gershburg E, Pagano JS (2005) Epstein-Barr virus infections: prospects for treatment. J Antimicrob Chemother 56(2):277–81PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. 97.
    Paya CV, Fung JJ, Nalesnik MA et al (1999) Epstein-Barr virus-induced posttransplant lymphoproliferative disorders. ASTS/ASTP EBV-PTLD Task Force and The Mayo Clinic Organized International Consensus Development Meeting. Transplantation 68(10):1517–25PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. 98.
    Kalil AC, Levitsky J, Lyden E, Stoner J, Freifeld AG (2005) Meta-analysis: the efficacy of strategies to prevent organ disease by cytomegalovirus in solid organ transplant recipients. Ann Intern Med 143(12):870–80PubMedGoogle Scholar
  99. 99.
    Mentzer SJ, Perrine SP, Faller DV (2001) Epstein-Barr virus post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease and virus-specific therapy: pharmacological re-activation of viral target genes with arginine butyrate. Transpl Infect Dis 3(3):177–85PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  100. 100.
    Faller DV, Mentzer SJ, Perrine SP (2001) Induction of the Epstein-Barr virus thymidine kinase gene with concomitant nucleoside antivirals as a therapeutic strategy for Epstein-Barr virus-associated malignancies. Curr Opin Oncol 13(5):360–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. 101.
    Roychowdhury S, Peng R, Baiocchi RA et al (2003) Experimental treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-associated primary central nervous system lymphoma. Cancer Res 63(5):965–71PubMedGoogle Scholar
  102. 102.
    Gershburg E, Hong K, Pagano JS (2004) Effects of maribavir and selected indolocarbazoles on Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 and on viral lytic replication. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48(5):1900–3PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  103. 103.
    Preiksaitis JK (2004) New developments in the diagnosis and management of posttransplantation lymphoproliferative disorders in solid organ transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 39(7):1016–23PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  104. 104.
    Weinstock DM, Ambrossi GG, Brennan C, Kiehn TE, Jakubowski A (2006) Preemptive diagnosis and treatment of Epstein-Barr virus-associated post transplant lymphoproliferative disorder after hematopoietic stem cell transplant: an approach in development. Bone Marrow Transplant 37(6):539–46PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. 105.
    Chang Y, Cesarman E, Pessin MS et al (1994) Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi’s sarcoma. Science 266(5192):1865–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  106. 106.
    Rimar D, Rimar Y, Keynan Y (2006) Human herpesvirus-8: beyond Kaposi’s. Isr Med Assoc J 8(7):489–93PubMedGoogle Scholar
  107. 107.
    Dukers NH, Rezza G (2003) Human herpesvirus 8 epidemiology: what we do and do not know. AIDS 17(12):1717–30PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  108. 108.
    Blackbourn DJ, Osmond D, Levy JA, Lennette ET (1999) Increased human herpesvirus 8 seroprevalence in young homosexual men who have multiple sex contacts with different partners. J Infect Dis 179(1):237–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  109. 109.
    Tsai WH, Lee YM, Ing-Tiau Kuo B et al (2005) Increased seroprevalence of human herpesvirus 8 in patients with hematological disorders. Acta Haematol 114(2):95–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  110. 110.
    Luppi M, Barozzi P, Schulz TF et al (2000) Nonmalignant disease associated with human herpesvirus 8 reactivation in patients who have undergone autologous peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Blood 96(7):2355–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  111. 111.
    Luppi M, Barozzi P, Schulz TF et al (2000) Bone marrow failure associated with human herpesvirus 8 infection after transplantation. N Engl J Med 343(19):1378–85PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. 112.
    Luppi M, Barozzi P, Rasini V et al (2002) Severe pancytopenia and hemophagocytosis after HHV-8 primary infection in a renal transplant patient successfully treated with foscarnet. Transplantation 74(1):131–2PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  113. 113.
    Fardet L, Blum L, Kerob D et al (2003) Human herpesvirus 8-associated hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. Clin Infect Dis 37(2):285–91PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  114. 114.
    Sanchez-Velasco P, Ocejo-Vinyals JG, Flores R, Gomez-Roman JJ, Lozano MJ, Leyva-Cobian F (2001) Simultaneous multiorgan presence of human herpesvirus 8 and restricted lymphotropism of Epstein-Barr virus DNA sequences in a human immunodeficiency virus-negative immunodeficient infant. J Infect Dis 183(2):338–42PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. 115.
    Edelman DC (2005) Human herpesvirus 8 – a novel human pathogen. Virol J 2:78PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. 116.
    Simpson GR, Schulz TF, Whitby D et al (1996) Prevalence of Kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpesvirus infection measured by antibodies to recombinant capsid protein and latent immunofluorescence antigen. Lancet 348(9035):1133–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. 117.
    LaDuca JR, Love JL, Abbott LZ, Dube S, Freidman-Kien AE, Poiesz BJ (1998) Detection of human herpesvirus 8 DNA sequences in tissues and bodily fluids. J Infect Dis 178(6):1610–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. 118.
    Kedes DH, Ganem D (1997) Sensitivity of Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus replication to antiviral drugs. Implications for potential therapy. J Clin Invest 99(9):2082–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  119. 119.
    Dagna L, Broccolo F, Paties CT et al (2005) A relapsing inflammatory syndrome and active human herpesvirus 8 infection. N Engl J Med 353(2):156–63PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  120. 120.
    Simonart T, Noel JC, De Dobbeleer G et al (1998) Treatment of classical Kaposi’s sarcoma with intralesional injections of cidofovir: report of a case. J Med Virol 55(3):215–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. 121.
    Boulanger E, Gerard L, Gabarre J et al (2005) Prognostic factors and outcome of human herpesvirus 8-associated primary effusion lymphoma in patients with AIDS. J Clin Oncol 23(19):4372–80PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. 122.
    Klass CM, Offermann MK (2005) Targeting human herpesvirus-8 for treatment of Kaposi’s sarcoma and primary effusion lymphoma. Curr Opin Oncol 17(5):447–55PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  123. 123.
    Deichmann M, Thome M, Jackel A et al (1998) Non-human immunodeficiency virus Kaposi’s sarcoma can be effectively treated with low-dose interferon-alpha despite the persistence of herpesvirus-8. Br J Dermatol 139(6):1052–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  124. 124.
    Erdman DD, Xu W, Gerber SI et al (2002) Molecular epidemiology of adenovirus type 7 in the United States, 1966–2000. Emerg Infect Dis 8(3):269–77PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. 125.
    Echavarria M, Sanchez JL, Kolavic-Gray SA et al (2003) Rapid detection of adenovirus in throat swab specimens by PCR during respiratory disease outbreaks among military recruits. J Clin Microbiol 41(2):810–2PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  126. 126.
    Hierholzer JC (1992) Adenoviruses in the immunocompromised host. Clin Microbiol Rev 5(3):262–74PubMedGoogle Scholar
  127. 127.
    Wang WH, Wang HL (2003) Fulminant adenovirus hepatitis following bone marrow transplantation. A case report and brief review of the literature. Arch Pathol Lab Med 127(5):e246–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  128. 128.
    Bruno B, Zager RA, Boeckh MJ et al (2004) Adenovirus nephritis in hematopoietic stem-cell transplantation. Transplantation 77(7):1049–57PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. 129.
    Simila S, Jouppila R, Salmi A, Pohjonen R (1970) Encephaloningitis in children associated with an adenovirus type 7 epidemic. Acta Paediatr Scand 59(3):310–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. 130.
    Runde V, Ross S, Trenschel R et al (2001) Adenoviral infection after allogeneic stem cell transplantation (SCT): report on 130 patients from a single SCT unit involved in a prospective multi center surveillance study. Bone Marrow Transplant 28(1):51–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  131. 131.
    La Rosa AM, Champlin RE, Mirza N et al (2001) Adenovirus infections in adult recipients of blood and marrow transplants. Clin Infect Dis 32(6):871–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. 132.
    Lion T, Baumgartinger R, Watzinger F et al (2003) Molecular monitoring of adenovirus in peripheral blood after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation permits early diagnosis of disseminated disease. Blood 102(3):1114–20PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  133. 133.
    Wiley LA, Roba LA, Kowalski RP, Romanowski EG, Gordon YJ (1996) A 5-year evaluation of the adenoclone test for the rapid diagnosis of adenovirus from conjunctival swabs. Cornea 15(4):363–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. 134.
    Shetty AK, Treynor E, Hill DW, Gutierrez KM, Warford A, Baron EJ (2003) Comparison of conventional viral cultures with direct fluorescent antibody stains for diagnosis of community-acquired respiratory virus infections in hospitalized children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 22(9):789–94PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. 135.
    Bordigoni P, Carret AS, Venard V, Witz F, Le Faou A (2001) Treatment of adenovirus infections in patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 32(9):1290–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. 136.
    Legrand F, Berrebi D, Houhou N et al (2001) Early diagnosis of adenovirus infection and treatment with cidofovir after bone marrow transplantation in children. Bone Marrow Transplant 27(6):621–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  137. 137.
    Hoffman JA, Shah AJ, Ross LA, Kapoor N (2001) Adenoviral infections and a prospective trial of cidofovir in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 7(7):388–94PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  138. 138.
    Ljungman P, Ribaud P, Eyrich M et al (2003) Cidofovir for adenovirus infections after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a survey by the Infectious Diseases Working Party of the European Group for Blood and Marrow Transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 31(6):481–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  139. 139.
    Leruez-Ville M, Minard V, Lacaille F et al (2004) Real-time blood plasma polymerase chain reaction for management of disseminated adenovirus infection. Clin Infect Dis 38(1):45–52PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. 140.
    Yusuf U, Hale GA, Carr J et al (2006) Cidofovir for the treatment of adenoviral infection in pediatric hematopoietic stem cell transplant patients. Transplantation 81(10):1398–404PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. 141.
    Chakrabarti S, Mautner V, Osman H et al (2002) Adenovirus infections following allogeneic stem cell transplantation: incidence and outcome in relation to graft manipulation, immunosuppression, and immune recovery. Blood 100(5):1619–27PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  142. 142.
    Hromas R, Cornetta K, Srour E, Blanke C, Broun ER (1994) Donor leukocyte infusion as therapy of life-threatening adenoviral infections after T-cell-depleted bone marrow transplantation. Blood 84(5):1689–90PubMedGoogle Scholar
  143. 143.
    Bruno B, Gooley T, Hackman RC, Davis C, Corey L, Boeckh M (2003) Adenovirus infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: effect of ganciclovir and impact on survival. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 9(5):341–52PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  144. 144.
    Emovon OE, Lin A, Howell DN et al (2003) Refractory adenovirus infection after simultaneous kidney-pancreas transplantation: successful treatment with intravenous ribavirin and pooled human intravenous immunoglobulin. Nephrol Dial Transplant 18(11):2436–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  145. 145.
    Flomenberg P, Babbitt J, Drobyski WR et al (1994) Increasing incidence of adenovirus disease in bone marrow transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 169(4):775–81PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. 146.
    Potter CW, Phair JP, Vodinelich L, Fenton R, Jennings R (1976) Antiviral, immunosuppressive and antitumour effects of ribavirin. Nature 259(5543):496–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. 147.
    Miyamura K, Hamaguchi M, Taji H et al (2000) Successful ribavirin therapy for severe adenovirus hemorrhagic cystitis after allogeneic marrow transplant from close HLA donors rather than distant donors. Bone Marrow Transplant 25(5):545–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  148. 148.
    Vianelli N, Renga M, Azzi A et al (2000) Sequential vidarabine infusion in the treatment of polyoma virus-associated acute haemorrhagic cystitis late after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 25(3):319–20PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  149. 149.
    Mentel R, Kinder M, Wegner U, von Janta-Lipinski M, Matthes E (1997) Inhibitory activity of 3′-fluoro-2′ deoxythymidine and related nucleoside analogues against adenoviruses in vitro. Antiviral Res 34(3):113–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. 150.
    Mentel R, Wegner U (2000) Evaluation of the efficacy of 2′, 3′-dideoxycytidine against adenovirus infection in a mouse pneumonia model. Antiviral Res 47(2):79–87PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  151. 151.
    Falsey AR, Walsh EE (2000) Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adults. Clin Microbiol Rev 13(3):371–84PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  152. 152.
    Walsh EE, McConnochie KM, Long CE, Hall CB (1997) Severity of respiratory syncytial virus infection is related to virus strain. J Infect Dis 175(4):814–20PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. 153.
    Champlin RE, Whimbey E (2001) Community respiratory virus infections in bone marrow transplant recipients: the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center experience. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 7(Suppl):8S–10SPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. 154.
    Simonsen L (1999) The global impact of influenza on morbidity and mortality. Vaccine 17(Suppl 1):S3–10PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  155. 155.
    Fujimoto S, Kobayashi M, Uemura O et al (1998) PCR on cerebrospinal fluid to show influenza-associated acute encephalopathy or encephalitis. Lancet 352(9131):873–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  156. 156.
    Rodriguez WJ, Schwartz RH, Thorne MM (2002) Evaluation of diagnostic tests for influenza in a pediatric practice. Pediatr Infect Dis J 21(3):193–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  157. 157.
    Frank AL, Couch RB, Griffis CA, Baxter BD (1979) Comparison of different tissue cultures for isolation and quantitation of influenza and parainfluenza viruses. J Clin Microbiol 10(1):32–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  158. 158.
    Hu A, Colella M, Zhao P et al (2005) Development of a real-time RT-PCR assay for detection and quantitation of parainfluenza virus 3. J Virol Methods 130(1–2): 145–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  159. 159.
    van Elden LJ, van Kraaij MG, Nijhuis M et al (2002) Polymerase chain reaction is more sensitive than viral culture and antigen testing for the detection of respiratory viruses in adults with hematological cancer and pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 34(2):177–83PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  160. 160.
    Peck AJ, Corey L, Boeckh M (2004) Pretransplantation respiratory syncytial virus infection: impact of a strategy to delay transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 39(5):673–80PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  161. 161.
    Gilbert BE, Wilson SZ, Knight V et al (1985) Ribavirin small-particle aerosol treatment of infections caused by influenza virus strains A/Victoria/7/83 (H1N1) and B/Texas/1/84. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 27(3):309–13PubMedGoogle Scholar
  162. 162.
    Sparrelid E, Ljungman P, Ekelof-Andstrom E et al (1997) Ribavirin therapy in bone marrow transplant recipients with viral respiratory tract infections. Bone Marrow Transplant 19(9):905–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. 163.
    Nichols WG, Corey L, Gooley T, Davis C, Boeckh M (2001) Parainfluenza virus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: risk factors, response to antiviral therapy, and effect on transplant outcome. Blood 98(3):573–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  164. 164.
    McColl MD, Corser RB, Bremner J, Chopra R (1998) Respiratory syncytial virus infection in adult BMT recipients: effective therapy with short duration nebulised ribavirin. Bone Marrow Transplant 21(4):423–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  165. 165.
    Nichols WG, Guthrie KA, Corey L, Boeckh M (2004) Influenza infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: risk factors, mortality, and the effect of antiviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 39(9):1300–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  166. 166.
    Belshe RB, Nichol KL, Black SB et al (2004) Safety, efficacy, and effectiveness of live, attenuated, cold-adapted influenza vaccine in an indicated population aged 5-49 years. Clin Infect Dis 39(7):920–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. 167.
    Harper SA, Fukuda K, Uyeki TM, Cox NJ, Bridges CB (2005) Prevention and control of influenza. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 54(RR-8):1–40PubMedGoogle Scholar
  168. 168.
    Nichols WG, Gooley T, Boeckh M (2001) Community-acquired respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus infections after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation: the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center experience. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 7(Suppl):11S–5SPubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  169. 169.
    Boeckh M, Berrey MM, Bowden RA, Crawford SW, Balsley J, Corey L (2001) Phase 1 evaluation of the respiratory syncytial virus-specific monoclonal antibody palivizumab in recipients of hematopoietic stem cell transplants. J Infect Dis 184(3):350–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  170. 170.
    Banna GL, Aversa SM, Cattelan AM, Crivellari G, Monfardini S (2004) Respiratory syncytial virus-related pneumonia after stem cell transplantation successfully treated with palivizumab and steroid therapy. Scand J Infect Dis 36(2):155–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  171. 171.
    van den Hoogen BG, de Jong JC, Groen J et al (2001) A newly discovered human pneumovirus isolated from young children with respiratory tract disease. Nat Med 7(6):719–24PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  172. 172.
    Williams JV, Harris PA, Tollefson SJ et al (2004) Human metapneumovirus and lower respiratory tract disease in otherwise healthy infants and children. N Engl J Med 350(5):443–50PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  173. 173.
    McIntosh K, McAdam AJ (2004) Human metapneumovirus – an important new respiratory virus. N Engl J Med 350(5):431–3PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  174. 174.
    Englund JA, Boeckh M, Kuypers J et al (2006) Brief communication: fatal human metapneumovirus infection in stem-cell transplant recipients. Ann Intern Med 144(5):344–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  175. 175.
    Debiaggi M, Canducci F, Sampaolo M et al (2006) Persistent symptomless human metapneumovirus infection in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. J Infect Dis 194(4):474–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  176. 176.
    Wyde PR, Chetty SN, Jewell AM, Boivin G, Piedra PA (2003) Comparison of the inhibition of human metapneumovirus and respiratory syncytial virus by ribavirin and immune serum globulin in vitro. Antiviral Res 60(1):51–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  177. 177.
    Hamelin ME, Prince GA, Boivin G (2006) Effect of ribavirin and glucocorticoid treatment in a mouse model of human metapneumovirus infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50(2):774–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  178. 178.
    Imakita M, Shiraki K, Yutani C, Ishibashi-Ueda H (2000) Pneumonia caused by rhinovirus. Clin Infect Dis 30(3):611–2PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  179. 179.
    Papadopoulos NG, Bates PJ, Bardin PG et al (2000) Rhinoviruses infect the lower airways. J Infect Dis 181(6):1875–84PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  180. 180.
    Ison MG, Hayden FG, Kaiser L, Corey L, Boeckh M (2003) Rhinovirus infections in hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients with pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 36(9):1139–43PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  181. 181.
    Ghosh S, Champlin R, Couch R et al (1999) Rhinovirus infections in myelosuppressed adult blood and marrow transplant recipients. Clin Infect Dis 29(3):528–32PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  182. 182.
    van Tilburg CM, Sanders EA, Rovers MM, Wolfs TF, Bierings MB (2006) Loss of antibodies and response to (re-)vaccination in children after treatment for acute lymphocytic leukemia: a systematic review. Leukemia 20(10):1717–22PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  183. 183.
    Kaplan LJ, Daum RS, Smaron M, McCarthy CA (1992) Severe measles in immunocompromised patients. JAMA 267(9):1237–41PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  184. 184.
    Hussey GD, Klein M (1990) A randomized, controlled trial of vitamin A in children with severe measles. N Engl J Med 323(3):160–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  185. 185.
    Forni AL, Schluger NW, Roberts RB (1994) Severe measles pneumonitis in adults: evaluation of clinical characteristics and therapy with intravenous ribavirin. Clin Infect Dis 19(3):454–62PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  186. 186.
    (2006) Brief report: update: mumps activity – United States, January 1-October 7, 2006. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 55(42):1152–1153Google Scholar
  187. 187.
    (2005) Elimination of rubella and congenital rubella syndrome – United States, 1969-2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 54(11):279–282Google Scholar
  188. 188.
    McKinney RE Jr, Katz SL, Wilfert CM (1987) Chronic enteroviral meningoencephalitis in agammaglobulinemic patients. Rev Infect Dis 9(2):334–56PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  189. 189.
    Tan PL, Verneris MR, Charnas LR, Reck SJ, van Burik JA, Blazar BR (2005) Outcome of CNS and pulmonary enteroviral infections after hematopoietic cell transplantation. Pediatr Blood Cancer 45(1):74–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  190. 190.
    Galama JM, de Leeuw N, Wittebol S, Peters H, Melchers WJ (1996) Prolonged enteroviral infection in a patient who developed pericarditis and heart failure after bone marrow transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 22(6):1004–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  191. 191.
    Yolken RH, Bishop CA, Townsend TR et al (1982) Infectious gastroenteritis in bone-marrow-transplant recipients. N Engl J Med 306(17):1010–2PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  192. 192.
    Biggs DD, Toorkey BC, Carrigan DR, Hanson GA, Ash RC (1990) Disseminated echovirus infection complicating bone marrow transplantation. Am J Med 88(4):421–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  193. 193.
    Troussard X, Bauduer F, Gallet E et al (1993) Virus recovery from stools of patients undergoing bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 12(6):573–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  194. 194.
    Gonzalez Y, Martino R, Badell I et al (1999) Pulmonary enterovirus infections in stem cell transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 23(5):511–3PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  195. 195.
    Fischmeister G, Wiesbauer P, Holzmann HM, Peters C, Eibl M, Gadner H (2000) Enteroviral meningoencephalitis in immunocompromised children after matched unrelated donor-bone marrow transplantation. Pediatr Hematol Oncol 17(5):393–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  196. 196.
    Chakrabarti S, Osman H, Collingham KE, Fegan CD, Milligan DW (2004) Enterovirus infections following T-cell depleted allogeneic transplants in adults. Bone Marrow Transplant 33(4):425–30PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  197. 197.
    Dagan R, Powell KR, Hall CB, Menegus MA (1985) Identification of infants unlikely to have serious bacterial infection although hospitalized for suspected sepsis. J Pediatr 107(6):855–60PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  198. 198.
    Gelfand HM, Holguin AH, Marchetti GE, Feorino PM (1963) A continuing surveillance of enterovirus infections in healthy children in six United States cities. I. Viruses isolated during 1960 and 1961. Am J Hyg 78:358–75PubMedGoogle Scholar
  199. 199.
    Kogon A, Spigland I, Frothingham TE et al (1969) The virus watch program: a continuing surveillance of viral infections in metropolitan New York families. VII. Observations on viral excretion, seroimmunity, intrafamilial spread and illness association in coxsackie and echovirus infections. Am J Epidemiol 89(1):51–61PubMedGoogle Scholar
  200. 200.
    Sawyer MH, Holland D, Aintablian N, Connor JD, Keyser EF, Waecker NJ Jr (1994) Diagnosis of enteroviral central nervous system infection by polymerase chain reaction during a large community outbreak. Pediatr Infect Dis J 13(3):177–82PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  201. 201.
    Drucker NA, Colan SD, Lewis AB et al (1994) Gamma-globulin treatment of acute myocarditis in the pediatric population. Circulation 89(1):252–7PubMedGoogle Scholar
  202. 202.
    Galama JM, Vogels MT, Jansen GH, Gielen M, Heessen FW (1997) Antibodies against enteroviruses in intravenous Ig preparations: great variation in titres and poor correlation with the incidence of circulating serotypes. J Med Virol 53(3):273–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  203. 203.
    Romero JR (2001) Pleconaril: a novel antipicornaviral drug. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 10(2):369–79PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  204. 204.
    Desmond RA, Accortt NA, Talley L, Villano SA, Soong SJ, Whitley RJ (2006) Enteroviral meningitis: natural history and outcome of pleconaril therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50(7):2409–14PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  205. 205.
    Engelhard D, Handsher R, Naparstek E et al (1991) Immune response to polio vaccination in bone marrow transplant recipients. Bone Marrow Transplant 8(4):295–300PubMedGoogle Scholar
  206. 206.
    Ljungman P, Duraj V, Magnius L (1991) Response to immunization against polio after allogeneic marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 7(2):89–93PubMedGoogle Scholar
  207. 207.
    (2000) Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among hematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. MMWR Recomm Rep 49(RR-10):1–125, CE1–CE7Google Scholar
  208. 208.
    Alexander LN, Seward JF, Santibanez TA et al (2004) Vaccine policy changes and epidemiology of poliomyelitis in the United States. JAMA 292(14):1696–701PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  209. 209.
    Godoi ER, de Souza VA, Cakmak S, Machado AF, Vilas Boas LS, Machado CM (2006) Loss of hepatitis A virus antibodies after bone marrow transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 38(1):37–40PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  210. 210.
    Brundage SC, Fitzpatrick AN (2006) Hepatitis A. Am Fam Physician 73(12):2162–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  211. 211.
    Kemmer NM, Miskovsky EP (2000) Hepatitis A. Infect Dis Clin North Am 14(3):605–15PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  212. 212.
    Ljungman P, Engelhard D, de la Camara R et al (2005) Vaccination of stem cell transplant recipients: recommendations of the Infectious Diseases Working Party of the EBMT. Bone Marrow Transplant 35(8):737–46PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  213. 213.
    Strasser SI, McDonald GB (1999) Hepatitis viruses and hematopoietic cell transplantation: a guide to patient and donor management. Blood 93(4):1127–36PubMedGoogle Scholar
  214. 214.
    (2004) Incidence of acute hepatitis B – United States, 1990-2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 52(51–52):1252–1254Google Scholar
  215. 215.
    Lau GK, Liang R, Chiu EK, Lee CK, Lam SK (1997) Hepatic events after bone marrow transplantation in patients with hepatitis B infection: a case controlled study. Bone Marrow Transplant 19(8):795–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  216. 216.
    Lee WM (1993) Acute liver failure. N Engl J Med 329(25):1862–72PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  217. 217.
    Biswas R, Tabor E, Hsia CC et al (2003) Comparative sensitivity of HBV NATs and HBsAg assays for detection of acute HBV infection. Transfusion 43(6):788–98PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  218. 218.
    Gandhi RT, Wurcel A, Lee H et al (2003) Isolated antibody to hepatitis B core antigen in human immunodeficiency virus type-1-infected individuals. Clin Infect Dis 36(12):1602–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  219. 219.
    Gish RG, Locarnini SA (2006) Chronic hepatitis B: current testing strategies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 4(6):666–76PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  220. 220.
    Hatzakis A, Magiorkinis E, Haida C (2006) HBV virological assessment. J Hepatol 44(1 Suppl):S71–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  221. 221.
    Keeffe EB, Marcellin P (2007) New and emerging treatment of chronic hepatitis B. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 5(3):285–94PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  222. 222.
    Benhamou Y (2006) Treatment algorithm for chronic hepatitis B in HIV-infected patients. J Hepatol 44(1 Suppl):S90–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  223. 223.
    Idilman R, Ustun C, Karayalcin S et al (2003) Hepatitis B virus vaccination of recipients and donors of allogeneic peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. Clin Transplant 17(5):438–43PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  224. 224.
    Peffault de Latour R, Levy V, Asselah T et al (2004) Long-term outcome of hepatitis C infection after bone marrow transplantation. Blood 103(5):1618–24PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  225. 225.
    Strasser SI, Myerson D, Spurgeon CL et al (1999) Hepatitis C virus infection and bone marrow transplantation: a cohort study with 10-year follow-up. Hepatology 29(6):1893–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  226. 226.
    Alter HJ (1992) New kit on the block: evaluation of second-generation assays for detection of antibody to the hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 15(2):350–3PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  227. 227.
    Kao JH, Lai MY, Hwang YT et al (1996) Chronic hepatitis C without anti-hepatitis C antibodies by second-generation assay. A clinicopathologic study and demonstration of the usefulness of a third-generation assay. Dig Dis Sci 41(1):161–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  228. 228.
    Uyttendaele S, Claeys H, Mertens W, Verhaert H, Vermylen C (1994) Evaluation of third-generation screening and confirmatory assays for HCV antibodies. Vox Sang 66(2):122–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  229. 229.
    Lok AS, Chien D, Choo QL et al (1993) Antibody response to core, envelope and nonstructural hepatitis C virus antigens: comparison of immunocompetent and immunosuppressed patients. Hepatology 18(3):497–502PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  230. 230.
    Gretch DR, dela Rosa C, Carithers RL Jr, Willson RA, Williams B, Corey L (1995) Assessment of hepatitis C viremia using molecular amplification technologies: correlations and clinical implications. Ann Intern Med 123(5):321–9PubMedGoogle Scholar
  231. 231.
    Strader DB, Wright T, Thomas DL, Seeff LB (2004) Diagnosis, management, and treatment of hepatitis C. Hepatology 39(4):1147–71PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  232. 232.
    McDonald GB (2006) Advances in prevention and treatment of hepatic disorders following hematopoietic cell transplantation. Best Pract Res Clin Haematol 19(2):341–52PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  233. 233.
    Stebbing J, Marvin V, Bower M (2004) The evidence-based treatment of AIDS-related non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Cancer Treat Rev 30(3):249–53PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  234. 234.
    Carbone A, Gloghini A (2006) HHV-8-associated lymphoma: state-of-the-art review. Acta Haematol 117(3):129–31PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  235. 235.
    Martin SI, Zukerberg L, Robbins GK (2005) Reactive Epstein-Barr virus-related polyclonal lymphoproliferative disorder in a patient with AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 41(8):e76–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  236. 236.
    Burke DS, Brundage JF, Redfield RR et al (1988) Measurement of the false positive rate in a screening program for human immunodeficiency virus infections. N Engl J Med 319(15):961–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  237. 237.
    Schable C, Zekeng L, Pau CP et al (1994) Sensitivity of United States HIV antibody tests for detection of HIV-1 group O infections. Lancet 344(8933):1333–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  238. 238.
    Markovitz DM (1993) Infection with the human immunodeficiency virus type 2. Ann Intern Med 118(3):211–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  239. 239.
    Horsburgh CR Jr, Ou CY, Jason J et al (1989) Duration of human immunodeficiency virus infection before detection of antibody. Lancet 2(8664):637–40PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  240. 240.
    Yang Y, Lamendola MH, Mendoza M et al (2001) Performance characteristics of the COBAS AmpliScreen HIV-1 test, version 1.5, an assay designed for screening plasma mini-pools. Transfusion 41(5):643–51PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  241. 241.
    van den Berk GE, Frissen PH, Regez RM, Rietra PJ (2003) Evaluation of the rapid immunoassay determine HIV 1/2 for detection of antibodies to human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2. J Clin Microbiol 41(8):3868–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  242. 242.
    Drociuk D, Gibson J, Hodge J Jr (2004) Health information privacy and syndromic surveillance systems. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53(Suppl):221–5PubMedGoogle Scholar
  243. 243.
    de The G, Bomford R (1993) An HTLV-I vaccine: why, how, for whom? AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 9(5):381–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  244. 244.
    Wiktor SZ, Alexander SS, Shaw GM et al (1990) Distinguishing between HTLV-I and HTLV-II by western blot. Lancet 335(8704):1533PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  245. 245.
    Gill PS, Harrington W Jr, Kaplan MH et al (1995) Treatment of adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma with a combination of interferon alfa and zidovudine. N Engl J Med 332(26):1744–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  246. 246.
    Tholouli E, Liu Yin JA (2006) Successful treatment of HTLV-1-associated acute adult T-cell leukemia lymphoma by allogeneic bone marrow transplantation: a 12 year follow-up. Leuk Lymphoma 47(8):1691–2PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  247. 247.
    Padgett BL, Walker DL, ZuRhein GM, Eckroade RJ, Dessel BH (1971) Cultivation of papova-like virus from human brain with progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy. Lancet 1(7712):1257–60PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  248. 248.
    Gardner SD, Field AM, Coleman DV, Hulme B (1971) New human papovavirus (B.K.) isolated from urine after renal transplantation. Lancet 1(7712):1253–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  249. 249.
    Weber T, Trebst C, Frye S et al (1997) Analysis of the systemic and intrathecal humoral immune response in progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. J Infect Dis 176(1):250–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  250. 250.
    Power C, Gladden JG, Halliday W et al (2000) AIDS- and non-AIDS-related PML association with distinct p53 polymorphism. Neurology 54(3):743–6PubMedGoogle Scholar
  251. 251.
    Berger JR, Pall L, Lanska D, Whiteman M (1998) Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in patients with HIV infection. J Neurovirol 4(1):59–68PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  252. 252.
    Whiteman ML, Post MJ, Berger JR, Tate LG, Bell MD, Limonte LP (1993) Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in 47 HIV-seropositive patients: neuroimaging with clinical and pathologic correlation. Radiology 187(1):233–40PubMedGoogle Scholar
  253. 253.
    Hulette CM, Downey BT, Burger PC (1991) Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Diagnosis by in situ hybridization with a biotinylated JC virus DNA probe using an automated histomatic code-on slide stainer. Am J Surg Pathol 15(8):791–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  254. 254.
    Cinque P, Scarpellini P, Vago L, Linde A, Lazzarin A (1997) Diagnosis of central nervous system complications in HIV-infected patients: cerebrospinal fluid analysis by the polymerase chain reaction. AIDS 11(1):1–17PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  255. 255.
    Marra CM, Rajicic N, Barker DE et al (2002) A pilot study of cidofovir for progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in AIDS. AIDS 16(13):1791–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  256. 256.
    Hou J, Major EO (1998) The efficacy of nucleoside analogs against JC virus multiplication in a persistently infected human fetal brain cell line. J Neurovirol 4(4):451–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  257. 257.
    Aksamit AJ (2001) Treatment of non-AIDS progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy with cytosine arabinoside. J Neurovirol 7(4):386–90PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  258. 258.
    Tognon M, Corallini A, Martini F, Negrini M, Barbanti-Brodano G (2003) Oncogenic transformation by BK virus and association with human tumors. Oncogene 22(33):5192–200PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  259. 259.
    Cubukcu-Dimopulo O, Greco A, Kumar A, Karluk D, Mittal K, Jagirdar J (2000) BK virus infection in AIDS. Am J Surg Pathol 24(1):145–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  260. 260.
    Sandler ES, Aquino VM, Goss-Shohet E, Hinrichs S, Krisher K (1997) BK papova virus pneumonia following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Bone Marrow Transplant 20(2):163–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  261. 261.
    Galan A, Rauch CA, Otis CN (2005) Fatal BK polyoma viral pneumonia associated with immunosuppression. Hum Pathol 36(9):1031–4PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  262. 262.
    Nickeleit V, Klimkait T, Binet IF et al (2000) Testing for polyomavirus type BK DNA in plasma to identify renal-allograft recipients with viral nephropathy. N Engl J Med 342(18):1309–15PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  263. 263.
    Leung AY, Yuen KY, Kwong YL (2005) Polyoma BK virus and haemorrhagic cystitis in haematopoietic stem cell transplantation: a changing paradigm. Bone Marrow Transplant 36(11):929–37PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  264. 264.
    Arthur RR, Shah KV (1989) Occurrence and significance of papovaviruses BK and JC in the urine. Prog Med Virol 36:42–61PubMedGoogle Scholar
  265. 265.
    Whiley DM, Mackay IM, Sloots TP (2001) Detection and differentiation of human polyomaviruses JC and BK by LightCycler PCR. J Clin Microbiol 39(12):4357–61PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  266. 266.
    Behzad-Behbahani A, Klapper PE, Vallely PJ, Cleator GM, Khoo SH (2004) Detection of BK virus and JC virus DNA in urine samples from immunocompromised (HIV-infected) and immunocompetent (HIV-non-infected) patients using polymerase chain reaction and microplate hybridisation. J Clin Virol 29(4):224–9PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  267. 267.
    Coleman DV, Wolfendale MR, Daniel RA et al (1980) A prospective study of human polyomavirus infection in pregnancy. J Infect Dis 142(1):1–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  268. 268.
    Markowitz RB, Thompson HC, Mueller JF, Cohen JA, Dynan WS (1993) Incidence of BK virus and JC virus viruria in human immunodeficiency virus-infected and -uninfected subjects. J Infect Dis 167(1):13–20PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  269. 269.
    Kitamura T, Aso Y, Kuniyoshi N, Hara K, Yogo Y (1990) High incidence of urinary JC virus excretion in nonimmunosuppressed older patients. J Infect Dis 161(6):1128–33PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  270. 270.
    Munoz P, Fogeda M, Bouza E, Verde E, Palomo J, Banares R (2005) Prevalence of BK virus replication among recipients of solid organ transplants. Clin Infect Dis 41(12):1720–5PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  271. 271.
    Leung AY, Suen CK, Lie AK, Liang RH, Yuen KY, Kwong YL (2001) Quantification of polyoma BK viruria in hemorrhagic cystitis complicating bone marrow transplantation. Blood 98(6):1971–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  272. 272.
    Azzi A, Cesaro S, Laszlo D et al (1999) Human polyomavirus BK (BKV) load and haemorrhagic cystitis in bone marrow transplantation patients. J Clin Virol 14(2):79–86PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  273. 273.
    Leung AY, Chan MT, Yuen KY et al (2005) Ciprofloxacin decreased polyoma BK virus load in patients who underwent allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Infect Dis 40(4):528–37PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  274. 274.
    Erard V, Kim HW, Corey L et al (2005) BK DNA viral load in plasma: evidence for an association with hemorrhagic cystitis in allogeneic hematopoietic cell transplant recipients. Blood 106(3):1130–2PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  275. 275.
    Bogdanovic G, Priftakis P, Giraud G, Dalianis T (2006) A related donor and reduced intensity conditioning reduces the risk of development of BK virus-positive haemorrhagic cystitis in allogeneic haematopoetic stem cell-transplanted patients. Anticancer Res 26(2B):1311–8PubMedGoogle Scholar
  276. 276.
    Ferrazzi E, Peracchi M, Biasolo MA, Faggionato O, Stefanelli S, Palu G (1988) Antiviral activity of gyrase inhibitors norfloxacin, coumermycin A1 and nalidixic acid. Biochem Pharmacol 37(9):1885–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  277. 277.
    Portolani M, Pietrosemoli P, Cermelli C et al (1988) Suppression of BK virus replication and cytopathic effect by inhibitors of prokaryotic DNA gyrase. Antiviral Res 9(3):205–18PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  278. 278.
    Randhawa PS (2005) Anti-BK virus activity of ciprofloxacin and related antibiotics. Clin Infect Dis 41(9):1366–7 author reply 7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  279. 279.
    Andrei G, Snoeck R, Vandeputte M, De Clercq E (1997) Activities of various compounds against murine and primate polyomaviruses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 41(3):587–93PubMedGoogle Scholar
  280. 280.
    Randhawa P, Farasati NA, Shapiro R, Hostetler KY (2006) Ether lipid ester derivatives of cidofovir inhibit polyomavirus BK replication in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50(4):1564–6PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  281. 281.
    Farasati NA, Shapiro R, Vats A, Randhawa P (2005) Effect of leflunomide and cidofovir on replication of BK virus in an in vitro culture system. Transplantation 79(1):116–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  282. 282.
    Held TK, Biel SS, Nitsche A et al (2000) Treatment of BK virus-associated hemorrhagic cystitis and simultaneous CMV reactivation with cidofovir. Bone Marrow Transplant 26(3):347–50PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  283. 283.
    Bridges B, Donegan S, Badros A (2006) Cidofovir bladder instillation for the treatment of BK hemorrhagic cystitis after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Am J Hematol 81(7):535–7PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  284. 284.
    Josephson MA, Gillen D, Javaid B et al (2006) Treatment of renal allograft polyoma BK virus infection with leflunomide. Transplantation 81(5):704–10PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  285. 285.
    Williams JW, Javaid B, Kadambi PV et al (2005) Leflunomide for polyomavirus type BK nephropathy. N Engl J Med 352(11):1157–8PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Humana Press 2009

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Transplant Infectious Diseases Service, Division of Infectious DiseasesOhio State University Medical CenterColumbusUSA
  2. 2.Transplant Infectious Disease & Compromised Host Program, Massachusetts General HospitalHarvard Medical SchoolBostonUSA

Personalised recommendations