The Betalain Secondary Metabolic Network

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Abstract

Betalains are a class of red and yellow pigments that replace the anthocyanins in most of the core families of the Caryophyllales order. No species is known that produces both pigments. The betalains color flowers, fruits, and epidermal tissues and respond to the same signals that anthocyanin pigments do. Many minor but important crops produce betalains including beets, quinoa, amaranth, spinach, and Opuntia. The evolutionary origin of this pathway is largely a mystery whose secrets are slowly being revealed. Betalains are based on tyrosine, as opposed to the phenylalanine-based anthocyanins. In this pathway, tyrosine is converted to l-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (l-DOPA) via an unknown enzyme. l-DOPA is converted to the yellow compound, betalamic acid. Another molecule of l-DOPA is converted to colorless cyclo-DOPA. Betalamic acid and cyclo-DOPA condense to form the red betacyanins. If cyclo-DOPA is unavailable, betalamic acid will condense with other amine groups to form the yellow betaxanthins. Here, we discuss: the genetics of betalains; what is known about the discovery and function of biosynthetic genes encoding, an l-DOPA dioxygenase, a cytochrome P450, and several UDP glucosyltransferases; available resources for betalain research; and finally, the holes in our knowledge that need to be filled in through future research.

Keywords

Betalain Betacyanin Betaxanthin Betanin Betanidin Caryophyllales Beet 4 o’clock Portulaca DODA CYP76AD1 
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Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Institute for Cell and Molecular BiologyThe University of Texas at AustinAustinUSA

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