Skip to main content

Part of the book series: Population Ecology ((POPE))

Abstract

Scale insects are among our most important pests, but relatively few have been studied in detail. These insects are often small and inconspicuous, and identification is usually a highly specialized activity. The beech scale Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger is to some extent an exception because the white wax secreted by this insect makes it highly conspicuous and the absence of any similar coccid on beech largely eliminates the chore of identification. Nevertheless, during the nineteenth century, this organism was described as a fungus (Psilonia nivea), the curly wax threads being taken for fungal hyphae.8,20

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Adeli, E., 1975, Insects on Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis ssp. macrophylla) in Iran and their importance for forestry practices and wood utilisation, Second World Technical Consultation on Forest Diseases and Insects, New Delhi, April 7–12, 1975. F.A.O. special paper No. 8.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Anonymous, 1984, Great Britain. Census of Woodlands and Trees 1979–82,Forestry Commission publications, pp. 1–61.

    Google Scholar 

  3. Barter, G. W., 1947, The beech scale, Bi-mon. Prog. Rep. Forest Insect Invest. 3 (4): 1.

    Google Scholar 

  4. Barter, G. W., 1953, Additional observations on the beech scale, Bi-mon. Prog. Rep. Forest Insect Invest. 9 (3): 1–2.

    Google Scholar 

  5. Baylac, M., 1980, Faune associée à Cryptococcus fagi (Baer) (Homoptera: Coccoidea) dans quelques hêtraies du nord de la France, Acta Oecol. Oecol. Appl. 1: 199–208.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Berryman, A. A., 1981, Population systems. A General Introduction, Plenum, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  7. Bogenschutz, H., 1983, Management of beech stands infected by Cryptococcus fagisuga in West Germany, in: Proceedings, of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 115–119, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  8. Boodle, L. A., and W. Dallimore, 1911, Report on investigations made regarding “Beech coccus” (Cryptococcus fagi, Bärensprung), Kew Ry. Bot. Gard. Bull. Misc. Inform. 8: 332–343.

    Google Scholar 

  9. Braun, H. J., 1976, Das Rindensterben der Buche, Fagus sylvatica L, verursacht durch die Buchenwollschildlaus Cryptococcus fagi Bar. I. Die Anatomie der Buchenrinde als Basis-Ursache, Eur. J. Forest Pathol. 6: 136–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Braun, H. J., 1977, Das Rindensterben der Buche, Fagus sylvatica L, verursacht durch die Buchenwollschildlaus Cryptococcus fagi Bar. II. Ablauf der Krankeit, Eur. J. Forest Pathol. 7: 76–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Brower, A. E., 1949, The beech scale and beech bark disease in Acadia national park, J. Econ. Entomol. 42: 226–228.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Butin, H., 1977, Taxonomy and morphology of Ascodichaena rugosa gen. et. sp. nov, Trans. Br. Mycol. Soc. 69: 249–254.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Camp, W. H., 1950, A biogeographic and paragenetic analysis of the American beech (Fagus), Acad. Natl. Sci. Philos. Am. Philos. Yearbk. 166–169.

    Google Scholar 

  14. Camp, W. H., 1951, A study of relative virulence of beech bark disease on the several types of forest beech present in eastern Canada and Maine, Acad. Natl. Sci. Phil. Am. Philos. Ybk. 180–183.

    Google Scholar 

  15. Carpenter, G. H., 1903, Woolly scales of the beech. Cryptococcus fagi Bärensp. in Injurious insects and other animals observed in Ireland during the year 1902, R. Dublin Soc. Econ. Proc. 1: 207.

    Google Scholar 

  16. Covassi, M., 1975, Nuovi reperti sulla corologia de Cryptococcus fagisuga Lndgr. in Italia e in Corsica (Homoptera, Cryptococcidae), Redia 56: 555–564.

    Google Scholar 

  17. Crosby, D., and Jones, T. W., 1950, Beech scale—Nectria. Tree pest leaflets No.4, 4pp. Committee on tree pest leaflets, New England section, Society of American Foresters.

    Google Scholar 

  18. Crosby, D., and Bjorkbom, J. C., 1958, Timely salvage can reduce losses from beech scale-Nectria attack, For. Res. Notes, NE For. Exp. Sta. No. 82, 4 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  19. Edmunds, G. F., and Alstad, D. N., 1978, Coevolution in insect herbivores and conifers, Science 199: 94 1945.

    Google Scholar 

  20. Ehrlich, J., 1934, The beech bark disease. A Nectria disease of Fagus following Cryptococcus fagi (Baer), Can. J. Res. 10: 593–692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  21. Feeny, P., 1975, Biochemical coevolution between plants and their insect herbivores, in: Coevolution of Animals and Plants ( L. E. Gilbert and P. H. Raven, eds.), pp. 3–19, University of Texas Press, Austin.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Filip, S. M., 1978, Impact of beech bark disease on uneven-aged management of a northern hardwood forest (1952 to 1976). For Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-45. 1–7.

    Google Scholar 

  23. Fink, S., and Braun, H. J., 1980, Die Bedeutung anatomischer Veränderungen bei der Buchenrindennekrose, Ann. Sci. Forest. 37: 333–343.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  24. Gate, I. M., 1988, Population ecology of the beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga Lind.),doctoral thesis, University of London.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Green, E. E., 1915, Cryptococcus fagi Baerensp, in: Observations on British coccidae in 1914, with descriptions of new species. Entomologist’s Mon. Mag. 51: 180–181.

    Google Scholar 

  26. Gregory, P. H., 1961, The Microbiology of the Atmosphere, Plant Science Monographs, Leonard Hill Publ, London.

    Google Scholar 

  27. Hartig, R., 1880, Die Buchen-Wollaus, Chermes fagi Kltb, in: Untersuchungen aus dem Forstbotanischen Institut zu Munchen, 1: 156–162.

    Google Scholar 

  28. Hawboldt, L. S., 1944, History of the spread of the beech scale Cryptococcus fagi (Baerensprung), an insect introduced into the maritime provinces, Acad. Natl. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. N. Bruns. 1: 137–146.

    Google Scholar 

  29. Holstener-Jorgensen, H., and Eiselstein, L. M., 1969, Investigation into the possibility of root drowning as a cause of Cryptococcus fagi attacks and other diseases in beech stands, Det forstlige Forsogsvaesen. 32: 250.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Houston, D. R., 1975, Beech bark disease, the aftermath forests are structured for a new outbreak, J. For. 73: 660–663.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Houston, D. R., 1983, American beech resistance to Cryptococcus fagisuga, in: Proceedings of the I. U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 3842, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  32. Houston, D. R., 1983, Influence of lichen species on colonisation of Fagus grandifolia by Cryptococcus fagisuga: Preliminary observations from certain Nova Scotian forests, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 105–108, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Houston, D. R., Parker, E. J., and Lonsdale, D., 1979, Beech bark disease: Patterns of spread and development of the initiating agent.Cryptococcus fagisuga, Can. J. For. Res. 9: 336–344.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. Houston, D. R., Parker, E. J., Perrin, R., and Lang, K. J., 1979, Beech bark disease: A comparison of the disease in North America, Great Britain, France, and Germany, Eur. J. Forest Pathol. 9: 199–211.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Kelty, M. J., and Nyland, R. K., 1981, Regenerating Adirondack northern hardwoods by shelterwood cutting and control of deer density, J. For. 79: 22–26.

    Google Scholar 

  36. Kunkel, H., 1968, Untersuchungen über die Buchenwollschildlaus Cryptococcus fagisuga Bär. (Insecta Coccina), einen Vertreter der Rindenparenchymsauger, Z. Angew. Entomol. 61: 373–380.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Kuthe, K., and Kramer, K., 1961. Zur Bekämpfung der Buchenwollschildlaus (Cryptococcus fagi Bär) mit chemischen Mitteln, Anz. Schadlingsk. 34: 42–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Lachance, D., 1983, Status of beech bark disease in the province of Quebec, in: Proceedings, I.U.F.R.O. beech bark disease working party conference. (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, Eds.), pp. 18–20, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  39. Lang, K. J., 1983, Present state of beech bark disease in Germany, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 10–12, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  40. Lang, K. J., 1983, Development of beech bark disease during a seven year period on two plots in northern Bavaria, in: Proceedings of the I. U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference. (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 120–126, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Lonsdale, D., 1980, Nectria infection of beech bark in relation to infestation by Cryptococcus fagisuga Lindinger, Eur. J. Forest Pathol. 10: 161–168.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Lonsdale, D., 1983, Wood and bark anatomy of young beech in relation to Cryptococcus attack, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference. (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 43–49, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  43. Lonsdale, D., and Parker, E. J., 1981, Forest Pathology: Beech bark disease, Rep. Forest Res. Edin. 1981: 34–35.

    Google Scholar 

  44. Lonsdale, D., and Sherriff, C., 1983, Some aspects of the ecology of Nectria on beech, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.) pp. 59–68, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Malphettes, C. B., 1977, Cryptococcus fagi (Barspr.) et dépérissement du hêtre en foret domaniale de Lyons (departements de l’Eure et de Seine-Maritime (France)), Ann. Sci. Forest. 34: 159–173.

    Google Scholar 

  46. Magasi, L. P., and Newell, W. R., 1983, The status of beech bark disease in the Maritime Provinces of Canada in 1980, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.) pp. 13–17, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Mayer, M., and Allen, D. C., 1983, Chilocorus stigma (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and other predators of beech scale in central New York, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference,(D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.) pp. 89–98, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Mielke, M. E., and Houston, D. R., 1983, Beech bark disease in West Virginia: status and impact on the Monongahela national forest, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.) pp. 27–30, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  49. Newstead, R., 1901, Monograph of the Coccidae of the British Isles, Ann. Vol. Ray. Soc. 1900 1: 1, 4, 2829, 41.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Ostrofsky, W. D., and Blanchard, R. 0., 1983, Characteristics and development of necrophylactic periderms in mature bark of American beech, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 69–79, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  51. Parker, E. J., 1975, Some investigations with Beech bark disease Nectria in southern England, Eur. J. Forest Pathol. 5: 118–124.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  52. Paucke, H., 1966, Stand der Problematic der Buchenrindennekrose, Soz. Forstwirtsch. 16: 179–181.

    Google Scholar 

  53. Perrin, R., 1977, Le dépérissement du hêtre, Rev. For. Fr. 29: 103–126.

    Google Scholar 

  54. Perrin, R., 1979, Contribution à la connaissance de l’étiologie de la maladie de l’ecorce du hetre. I. Etat sanitaire des hetraies francaises. Rôle de Nectria coccinea (Pers ex Fries) Fries, Eur. J. Forest Pathol. 9: 148–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  55. Perrin, R., 1980, Contribution à la connaissance de l’étiologie de la maladie de l’écorce du hetre. II. Etude experimentale de l’association Cryptococcus fagisuga lind-Nectria coccinea (Pers ex Fries) Fries. Rôle respectif des deux organismes, Ann. Sci. Forest. 37: 319–331.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. Perrin, R., 1983, Current status of beech bark disease in France, in: Proceedings of the I.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 7–9, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Rhumbler, L., 1914, Die Buchenrinden-Wollaus (Cryptococcus fagi) und ihre Bekampfung, J. Neumann, Neudamm, pp. 1–32.

    Google Scholar 

  58. Schenk, P. J., 1924, De Beukenwolluis, Floralia 45: 508.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Schimitschek, E., 1980, Cryptococcus fagi Barensp. und die Buchen-Rindennekrose, Anz. Schadlingskde., Pflanzenschutz, Umweltschutz. 53: 97–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  60. Schindler, U., 1960, Einige Ergebnisse mehrjahriger Beobachtungen uber Buchensterben und Buchenwollaus (Cryptococcus fagi Baer.) Der Forst-u. Holzwirt 15: 196–198.

    Google Scholar 

  61. Schindler, U., 1962, Erfahrungen mit der Buchenwollschildlaus, Der Forst-u. Holzwirt 17: 290–294.

    Google Scholar 

  62. Shigo, A. L., 1972, The beech bark disease today in the Northeastern U.S., J. For. 70: 286–289.

    Google Scholar 

  63. Thomsen, M., Buchwald, N. F., and Hauberg, P., 1949, Angreb of Cryptococcus fagi, Nectria galligena og andre parasiter paa bog i Danmark 1939–43, Det. forstlige Forsogsvaesen. 18: 97–326.

    Google Scholar 

  64. Towers, B., 1983, Status of beech bark disease in Pennsylvania, in: Proceedings of the 1.U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 24–26, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  65. Twery, M. J., and Patterson, W. A., 1984, Variations in beech bark disease and its effects on species composition and structure of northern harwood stands in central New England, Can. J. For. Res. 14: 565–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  66. Wainhouse, D., 1976, Forest Entomology: beech scale Cryptococcus fagisuga, Rep. Forest Res. Edin. 1976: 36–37.

    Google Scholar 

  67. Wainhouse, D., 1983, Interaction between beech and beech scale, in: Proceedings of the 1. U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 31–32, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  68. Wainhouse, D., 1980, Dispersal of first instar larvae of the felted beech scale, Cryptococcus fagisuga, J. Appl. Ecol. 17: 523–532.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. Wainhouse, D., and Deeble, R., 1980, Variation in susceptibility of beech (Fagus spp) to beech scale (Cryptococcus fagisuga), Ann. Sci. Forest. 37: 279–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Wainhouse, D., and Howell, R. S., 1983, Intraspecific variation in beech scale populations and in susceptibility of their host Fagus sylvatica, Ecol. Ent. 8: 351–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Wainhouse, D., and Howell, R. S., 1983, Distribution of attack by beech scale Cryptococcus fagisuga in beech progeny trials, in: Proceedings of the I. U.F.R.O. Beech Bark Disease Working Party Conference, (D. Houston and D. Wainhouse, eds.), pp. 33–37, U.S.D.A. For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-37.

    Google Scholar 

  72. Wainhouse, D., Gate, I. M., and Lonsdale, D., 1987, Host resistance to beech scale; a variety of defences, I. U.F.R.O. Working Party Conference. Plant resistance mechanisms to insects and pathogens (in press), Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  73. Wilkes, W., 1902, The beech tree in England, J. Roy. Hort. Soc. 26: 598–599.

    Google Scholar 

  74. Wujciak, R., 1976, Buchenschleimfluss und Holzqualitat, Forstarchiv 47: 71–78.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1988 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Wainhouse, D., Gate, I.M. (1988). The Beech Scale. In: Berryman, A.A. (eds) Dynamics of Forest Insect Populations. Population Ecology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0789-9_4

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-0789-9_4

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4899-0791-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-4899-0789-9

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics