Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology

  • Timothy E. Wilens
  • Thomas J. Spencer
  • Jean Frazier
  • Joseph Biederman

Abstract

There is a growing awareness of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents. Many of the children who display psychopathology may benefit from psychopharmacologic treatment. This chapter reviews potential benefits, risks, and treatment guidelines for psychotropic medications used in children and adolescents.

Keywords

Bipolar Disorder Major Depressive Disorder Anxiety Disorder American Academy Tardive Dyskinesia 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Adler, L. A., Resnick, S., Kunz, M., & Devinsky, O. (1995). Open label trial of venlafaxine in adults with attention deficit disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 31, 785–788.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. Aladjem, M., Wohl, R., Biochis, H., Orda, S., Lotan, D., & Freedman, S. (1982). Desmopressin in nocturnal enuresis. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 57, 137–140.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Alessi, N., Naylor, M., Ghaziuddin, M., & Zubieta,J. (1994). Update on lithium carbonate therapy in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 291–304.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Aman, M. G., Marks, R. E., Turbott, S. H., Wilshier, C. P., & Merry, S. N. (1991). Methylphenidate and thioridazine in the treatment of intellectually subaverage children: Effects on cognitive-motor performance. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 816–824.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. Ambrosini, P., Bianchi, M., Rabinovich, H., & Elia, J. (1993). Antidepressant treatments in children and adolescents: I. Affective disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 1–6.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Anderson, J. C., Williams, S., McGee, R., & Silva, P. A. (1987). DSM-II1 disorders in preadolescent children: Prevalence in a large sample from the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 69–76.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Apter, A., Ratzoni, G., King, R., Weizman, A., Iancu, I., Binder, M., & Riddle, M. (1994). Fluvoxamine open-label treatment of adolescent inpatients with obsessive-compulsive disorder or depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 342–348.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. August, G. J., Raz, N., & Baird, T. D. (1985). Effects of fenfluramine on behavioral, cognitive, and affective disturbances in autistic children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 15, 97–107.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Baldessarini, R. J. (1985). Chemotherapy in psychiatry. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  10. Baldessarini, R. J. (1996). Chemotherapy in psychiatry (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
  11. Barkley, R. A. (1990). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  12. Barkley, R. A., McMurray, M. B., Edelbrock, C. S., & Robbins, K. (1990). Side effects of methylphenidate in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A systematic, placebo-controlled evaluation. Pediatrics, 86, 184–192.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. Bernstein, G. A. (1991). Comorbidity and severity of anxiety and depressive disorders in a clinic sample. fournalofthe American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 43–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  14. Bernstein, G. A., & Borchardt, C. M. (1991). Anxiety disorders of childhood and adolescence: A critical review. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 519–532.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Bernstein, G. A., Garfinkel, B., & Borchardt, C. (1987). Imipramine versus alprazolam for school phobia. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
  16. Bernstein, G. A., Garfinkel, B. D., & Borchardt, C. M. (1990). Comparative studies of pharmacotherapy for school refusal. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 773–781.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Biederman, J. (1987). Clonazepam in the treatment of prepubertal children with panic-like symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 48(Suppl.), 38–41.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Biederman, J. (1991). Psychopharmacology in children and adolescents. In J. Wiener (Ed.), Comprehensive textbook of child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 545–570). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
  19. Biederman, J., Baldessarini, R. J., Wright, V., Knee, D., Harmatz,J., & Goldblatt, A. (1989). A double-blind placebo controlled study of desipramine in the treatment of attention deficit disorder II: Serum drug levels and cardiovascular findings. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 903–911.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Biederman, J., Newcorn, J., & Sprich, S. (1991). Comorbidity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with conduct, depressive, anxiety, and other disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 564–577.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. Biederman, J., Thisted, R., Greenhill, L., & Ryan, N. (1994). Safety of desipramine in children. Progress Notes of the American Society of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 45 2–4.Google Scholar
  22. Bird, B. R., Canino, G., Rubio-Stipec, M., Gould, M. S., Ribera, J., Sesman, M., Woodbury, M., Huertas-Goldman, S., Pagan, A., Sanchez-Lacay, A., & Moscoso, M. (1988). Estimates of the prevalence of childhood maladjustment in a community survey in Puerto Rico. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1120–1126.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Birkasova, M., Birkas, O., Flynn, M.J., & Cort, J. H. (1978). Desmopressin in the management of nocturnal enuresis in children: A double-blind study. Pediatrics, 62, 970–974.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. Birmaher, B., Waterman, S., Ryan, N., Cully, M., Balach, L., & Ingram, J. (1994). Fluoxetine for childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 993–997.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Campbell, M. (1988). Fenfluramine treatment of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 29, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Campbell, M., Adams, P., Perry, R., Spencer, E. K., & Overall, J. E. (1988). Tardive and withdrawal dyskinesia in autistic children: A prospective study. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 24, 251–255.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. Campbell, M., Anderson, L. T., & Green, W. H. (1983). Behavior-disordered and aggressive children: New advances in pharmacotherapy. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 4, 265–271.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. Campbell, M., Anderson, L., Small, A., Adams, P., & Gonzalez, N. (1993). Naltrexone in autistic children: Behavioral symptoms and attentional learning. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32,1283–1291.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Campbell, M., & Palij, M. (1985). Measurement of side effects including tardive dyskinesia. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 21, 1063–1080.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. Campbell, M., Perry, R., & Green, W. H. (1984). Use of lithium in children and adolescents. Psychosomatics, 25, 95–101.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Campbell, M., Small, A. M., Green, W. H., Jennings, S. J., Perry, R., Bennett, W. G., & Anderson, L. (1984). Behavioral efficacy of haloperidol and lithium carbonate: A comparison in hospitalized aggressive children with conduct disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 650–656.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Campbell, M., & Spencer, E. K. (1988). Psychopharmacology in child and adolescent psychiatry: A review of the past five years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 269–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Carlson, G. A. (1990). Bipolar disorders in children and adolescents. In B. D. Garfinkel, G. A. Carlson, & E. B. Weller (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents (pp. 21–36). Philadelphia: Saunders.Google Scholar
  34. Carlson, G., Fennig, S., & Bromet, E. (1994). The confusion between bipolar disorder and schizophrenia in youth: Where does it stand in the 1990’s?Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 453–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. Carlson, G. A., & Kashani,J. H. (1988). Manic symptoms in a non-referred adolescent population. Journal of Affective Disorders, 15, 219–226.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. Carlson, G. A., & Strober, M. (1978). Manic-depressive illness in early adolescence: A study of clinical and diagnostic characteristics in six cases. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 138–153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Casat, C. D., Pleasants, D. Z., & Van Wyck Fleet, J. (1987). A double-blind trial of bupropion in children with attention deficit disorder. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 23, 120–122.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. Chandran, K. (1994). ECG and clonidine. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 1351–1352.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Coffey, B., Frazier, J., & Chen, S. (1992). Comorbidity, Tourette syndrome, and anxiety disorders. In T. N. Chase, A. J. Friedhoff, & D.J. Cohen (Eds.), Advances in neurology, ?burette syndrome: Genetics, neurobiology,and treatment (pp. 95–104). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
  40. Coffey, B., Shader, R. I., & Greenblatt, D. J. (1983). Pharmacokinetics of benzodiazepines and psycho-stimulants in children. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 3, 217–225.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Cohen, D.J. (1990). Tourette’s syndrome: Developmental psychopathology of a model neuropsychiatric disorder of childhood. Lecture presented at the 27th Annual Institute of Pennsylvania Hospital.Google Scholar
  42. Cohen, D.J., Bruun, R. D., & Leckman, J. F. (Eds.). (1988). Tourette’s syndrome and tic disorders: Clinical understanding and treatment. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
  43. Cohen, D., & Leckman, J. (1994). Developmental psychopathology and neurobiology of Tourette’s syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 2–15.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Conners, C., Casat, C., Gualtieri, C., Weller, E., Reader, M., Reiss, A., Weller, R., Khayrallah, M., & Ascher, J. (1996). Bupropion hydrbchloride in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1314–1321.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  45. Connor, D. (1993). Beta-blockers for aggression: The pediatric experience. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psycho-pharmacology, 3, 99–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Connor, D., Ozbayrak, K. R., Kusiak, K., Caponi, A., & Melloni, R. (1997). Combined pharmacotherapy in children and adolescents in a residential treatment center. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 248–254.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Costello, E., Edelbrock, C., Costello, A., Dulcan, M., & Burns, B. (1988). Psychopathology in pediatric primary care: The new hidden morbidity. Journal of Pediatrics, 82, 415–424.Google Scholar
  48. Cunningham, L., Borison, R., Carmen, J., Chouinard, G., Crowder, J., Diamond, B., Fischer, D., & Hearst, E. (1994). A comparison of venlafaxine, trazodone, and placebo in major depression. Journal of Clinical Psycho-pharmacology, 14, 99–106.Google Scholar
  49. EIia,J., Borcherding, B. G., Potter, W. Z., Mefford, I. N., Rapoport, J. L., & Keysor, C. S. (1990). Stimulant drug treatment of hyperactivity: Biochemical correlates. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 48, 57–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Emslie, G., Kowatch, R., Costello, L., Travis, G., & Pierce, L. (1995). Double-blind study of fluoxetine in depressed children and adolescents. Proceedings of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, XI, 41–42.Google Scholar
  51. Fankhauser, M. P., Karumanchi, V. C., German, M. L., Yates, A., & Karumanchi, S. D. (1992). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of transdermal clonidine in autism. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53, 77–82.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. FDA. (1982). Use of approved drugs of unlabeled indications. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 18, 5–20.Google Scholar
  53. Frazier, J., Giedd, J., Hambruger, S., Albus, K., Kaysen, D., Vaituzis, C., Rajapakse, J., Lenane, M., McKenna, K., Jacobsen, L., Gordon, C., Brier, A., & Rapoport, J. (1996). Brain anatomic magnetic resonance imaging in childhood-onset schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 617–624.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. Frazier, J., Giedd, J., McKenna, K., Lenane, M., Jih, D., & Rapoport, J. (1994). An open trial of clozapine in 11 adolescents with childhood onset schizophrenia. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 658–663.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Frick, P., Lahey, B., Loeber, R., Tannenbaum, L., Horn, Y., Christ, M., Hart, E., & Hanson, K. (1993). Oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder: A meta-analytic review of factor analyses and cross-validation in a clinical sample. Clinical Psychology Review, 13, 319–340.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Gadow, K. D., Sverd, J., Sprafkin, J., Nolan, E. E., & Ezor, S. N. (1995). Efficacy of methylphenidate for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children with tic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 444–455.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Gammon, G. D., & Brown, T. E. (1993). Fluoxetine and methylphenidate in combination for treatment of attention deficit disorder and comorbid depressive disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 3,1-10.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  58. Geller, B. (1994). Phenomenology and course of pediatric bipolar disorders (Grant Application No. I ROI MH53063–01). Washington University School of Medicine.Google Scholar
  59. Geller, B., Cooper, T. B., Graham, D. L., Fetner, H. H., Marsteller, F. A., & Wells, J. M. (1992). Pharmacokinetically designed double-blind placebo-controlled study of nortriptyline in 6–12-year-olds with major depressive disorder: Outcome; nortriptyline and hydroxy-nortriptyline plasma levels; EKG,BP and side effects measurements. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 34–44.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  60. Geller, B., Fox, L. W., & Fletcher, M. (1993). Effect of tricyclic antidepressants on switching to mania and on the onset of bipolarity in depressed 6- to 12-year-olds. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 43–50.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  61. Geller, B., Sun, K., Zimerman, B., Luby, J., Frazier, J., & Williams, M. (1995). Complex and rapid-cycling in bipolar children and adolescents: A preliminary study. Journal of Affective Disorders, 22, 1–10.Google Scholar
  62. Geller, D., Biederman, J., Reed, E. D., Spencer, T.,& Wilens, T. E. (1995). Similarities in response to fluoxetine in the treatment of children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 36–44.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Gittelman, R., & Klein, D. F. (1971). Controlled imipramine treatment of school phobia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 25, 204–207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Gittelman, R., Landa, B., Mattes, J., & Klein, D. (1988). Methylphenidate and growth in hyperactive children: A controlled withdrawal study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1127–1130.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Gittelman, R., & Mannuzza, S (1988). Hyperactive boys almost grown up: III. Methylphenidate effects on ultimate height. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 1131–1134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Gittelman-Klein, R. (1980). Diagnosis and drug treatment of childhood disorders. In D. F. Klein, R. Gittelman, F. Quitkin, & A. Rifkin (Eds.), Diagnosis and drug treatment of psychiatric disorders: Adults and children (pp. 576–775). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.Google Scholar
  67. Goodwin, F., & Jamison, K. (1990). Manic-depressive illness. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  68. Gordon, C. T., Frazier, J., McKenna, K., Lenane, M., Jih, D., & Rapoport, J. (1994). Childhood-onset schizophrenia: An NIMH study in progress. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20, 697–712.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Graae, F., Milner, J., Rizzotto, L., & Klein, R. (1994). Clonazepam in childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 372–376.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Greenhill, L. L., & Osman, B. B. (1991). Ritalin: Theory and patient management. New York: Mary Ann Liebert.Google Scholar
  71. Hunt, R. D. (1987). Treatment effects of oral and transdermal clonidine in relation to methylphenidate: An open pilot study in ADD-H. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 23, 111–114.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  72. Hunt, R., Arnsten, A., & Asbell, M. (1995). An open trial of guanfacine in the treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 50–54.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Hunt, R. D., Minderaa, R. B., & Cohen, D. J. (1985). Clonidine benefits children with attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity: Report of a double-blind placebo-crossover therapeutic trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 617–629.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  74. Institute of Medicine. (1990). Research on children and adolescents with mental, behavioral, and developmental disorders. Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health.Google Scholar
  75. Jankovic,J. (1993). Deprenyl in attention deficit associated with Tourette’s syndrome. Archives of Neurology, 50, 286–288.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Jensen, P. S., Shervette, R. E., Xenakis, S. N., & Richters, J. (1993). Anxiety and depressive disorders in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with hyperactivity: New findings. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1203–1209.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. Jensen, P., Vitiello, B., Leonard, H., & Laughren, T. (1994). Child and adolescent psychopharmacology: Expanding the research base. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 30, 3–8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. Kashani, J. H., & Orvaschel, H. (1988). Anxiety disorders in mid-adolescence: A community sample. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145, 960–964.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. Kashani,J. H., & Sherman, D. D. (1989). Mood disorders in children and adolescents. In A. Tasman, R. E. Hales, & A. J. Frances (Eds.), Review of psychiatry (pp. 197–217). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
  80. Kemph, J., DeVane, C., Levin, G., Jarecke, R., & Miller, R. (1993). Treatment of aggressive children with clonidine: Results of an open pilot study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 577–581.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  81. Klein, R. G. (1987). Pharmacotherapy of childhood hyperactivity: An update. In H. Y. Meltzer (Ed.), Psychopharmacology: The third generation of progress (pp. 1215–1224). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
  82. Klein, R. G., & Bessler, A. W. (1992). Stimulant side effects in children. In J. M. Kane & J. A. Lieberman (Eds.), Adverse effects ofpsychotropic drugs (pp. 470–496). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  83. Klorman, R., Brumaghim, J. T., Salzman, L. F., Strauss, J., Borgstedt, A. D., McBride, M. C., & Loeb, S. (1989). Comparative effects of methylphenidate on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without aggressive/noncompliant features. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 25, 109–113.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  84. Kovacs, M., Akiskal, H., Gatsonis, C., & Parrone, P. (1994). Childhood-onset dysthymic disorder: Clinical features and prospective naturalistic outcome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 365–374.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Kovacs, M., Feinberg, T. L., Crouse-Novak, M., Paulauskas, S. L., & Finkelstein, R. (1984). Depressive disorders in childhood: I. A longitudinal prospective study of characteristics and recovery. Archives of General Psychiatry, 41, 229–237.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  86. Kumra, S., Frazier, J. A., & Jacobsen, L. (1996). Childhood onset schizophrenia: A double-blind clozapine trial. Archives of General Psychiatry, 56, 1090–1097.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  87. Kutcher, S., Boulos, C., Ward, B., Marton, P., Simeon, J., Ferguson, H. B., Szalai, J., Katic, M., Roberts, N., Dubois, C., & Reed, K. (1994). Response to desipramine treatment in adolescent depression: A fixed-dose, placebo-controlled trial. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 686–694.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  88. Lazarus, A., Mann, S. C., & Caroff, S. N. (1989). The neuroleptic malignant syndrome and related conditions. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
  89. Leckman, J. F., Hardin, M. T., Riddle, M. A., Stevenson, J., Ort, S., & Cohen, D. J. (1991). Clonidine treatment of Gilles de la Tourette’s syndrome. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 324–328.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Leckman, J. F., Riddle, M. A., & Cohen, D. J. (1988). Pathobiology of Tourette’s syndrome. In D. J. Cohen, R. D. Bruun, & J. E Leckman (Eds.), Toureue’s syndrome and tic disorders: Clinical understanding and treatment (pp. 103–118). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
  91. Leckman, J. F., Walkup, J. T., Riddle, M. A., Towbin, K. E., & Cohen, D. J. (1987). Tic disorders. In H. Y. Meltzer (Ed.), Psychopharmacology: The third generation of progress (pp. 1239–1254). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
  92. Leonard, H., & Rapoport, J. (1989). Anxiety disorders in childhood and adolescence. In A. Tasman, R. Hales, & A. Frances (Eds.), Review of psychiatry (pp. 162–179). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
  93. Leonard, H. L., Swedo, S. E., Rapoport, J. L., Koby, E. V., Lenane, M. C., Cheslow, D. L., & Hamburger, S. D. (1989). Treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder with clomipramine and desipramine in children and adolescents: A double-blind crossover comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry, 46, 1088–1092.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  94. Levenson, J. L. (1985). Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. American journal of Psychiatry, 142, 1137–1145.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  95. Loeber, R., Lahey, B. B., & Thomas, C. (1991). Diagnostic conundrum of oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 379–390.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Mandoki, M. (1995). Risperidone treatment of children and adolescents: Increased risk of extrapyramidal side effects? Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 5, 49–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bessler, A., Malloy, P., & LaPadula, M. (1993). Adult outcome of hyperactive boys: Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 565–576.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  98. March, J., & Leonard, H. (1996). Obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents: A review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1265–1273.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  99. Mattes, J. A., Rosenberg, J., & Mays, D. (1984). Carbamazepine versos propranolol in patients with uncontrolled rage outbursts: A random assignment study. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 20, 98–100.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  100. McElroy, S. L., Keck, P. E., Pope, H. G., & Hudson, J. I. (1992). Valproate in the treatment of bipolar disorder: Literature review and clinical guidelines. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12, 42S.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  101. McElroy, S., Strakowski, S., West, S., Keck, P., & McConville, B. (1997). Phenomenology of adolescent and adult mania in hospitalized patients with bipolar disorder. American journal of Psychiatry, 154, 44–49.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  102. Medical Letter . (1990). Sudden death in children treated with a tricyclic antidepressant. 32(816), 37–40.Google Scholar
  103. Meltzer, H. Y. (Ed.). (1987). Psychopharmacology: The third generation of progress. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
  104. Murphy, J. V., Groover, R. V., & Hodge, C. (1993). Hepatotoxic effects in a child receiving valproate and carnitine. Journal of Pediatrics, 123, 318–320.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  105. Pataki, C., Carlson, G., Kelly, K., Rapport, M., & Biancaniello, T. (1993). Side effects of methylphenidate and desipramine alone and in combination in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 32, 1065–1072.Google Scholar
  106. Patrick, K. S., Mueller, R. A., Gualtieri, C. T., & Breese, G. R. (1987). Pharmacokinetics and actions of methylphenidate. In H. Y. Meltzer (Ed.), Psychopharmacology: The third generation of progress (pp. 1387–1395). New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
  107. Pelham, W., Greenslade, K., Vodde-Hamilton, M., Murphy, D., Greenstein, J., Gnagy, E., Guthrie, K., Hoover, M., & Dahl, R. (1990). Relative efficacy of long-acting stimulants on children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder: A comparison of standard methylphenidate, sustained-release methylphenidate, sustained-release dextroamphetamine, and pemoline. Pediatrics, 86, 226–237.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. Physicians’ desk reference (48th ed.). (1994). Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics.Google Scholar
  109. Popper, C. (Ed.). (1987). Psychiatric pharmacosciences of children and adolescents. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
  110. Popper, C. W. (1995). Combining methylphenidate and clonidine: Pharmacologic questions and news reports about sudden death. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 5, 157–166.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. Pratt, D. S., & Dubois, R. S. (1990). Hepatotoxicity due to pemoline (Cylert): A report of two cases. Journal ofPediatric Gastroenterology, 10, 239–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  112. Preskorn, S., Alderman, J., Chung, M., Harrison, W., Mes-sign, M., & Harris, S. (1994). Pharmacokinetics of desipramine coadministered with sertraline or fluoxetine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 14, 90–98.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  113. Preskorn, S. H., Weller, E. B., Weller, R. A., & Glotzbach, E. (1983). Plasma levels of imipramine and adverse effects in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 1332–1335.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  114. Puig-Antich, J. (1982). Major depression and conduct disorder in prepuberty. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 118–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  115. Puig-Antich, J., Perel, J. M., Lupatkin, W., Chambers, W.J., Tabrizi, M. A., King, J., Goetz, R., Davies, M., & Stiller, R. L. (1987). imipramine in prepubertal major depressive disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 81–89.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  116. Rapoport, J. (1994). Clozapine and child psychiatry. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 4, 1–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  117. Rapoport, J. L., Buschbaum, M. S., Zahn, T. P., Weingartner, H., Ludlow, C., & Mikkelsen, E. J. (1978). Dextroamphetamine: Cognitive and behavioral effects in prepubertal boys. Science, 199, 560–563.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  118. Rapoport, J. L.., Mikkelsen, E. J., & Zavadil, A. P. (1978). Plasma imipramine and desmethylimipramine concentration and clinical response in childhood enuresis. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 14, 60–61.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  119. Rapoport, J. L., Quinn, P. Bradbard, G., Riddle, D., & Brooks, E. (1974). Imipramine and methylphenidate treatment of hyperactive boys: A double-blind comparison. Archives of General Psychiatry, 30, 789–793.Google Scholar
  120. Rapoport, J., Swedo, S., & Leonard, H. (1992). Childhood obsessive compulsive disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53, 11–16. Google Scholar
  121. Rapport, M., Carlson, G., Kelly, K., & Pataki, C. (1993). Methylphenidate and desipramine in hospitalized children: I. Separate and combined effects on cognitive function. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 333–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  122. Ratey, J. J. (1991). Mental retardation: Developing pharmacotherapies. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
  123. Ratey, J. J., Mikkelsen, E. J., Smith, G. B., Upadhyaya, A., Zuckerman, H. S., Martell, D., Sorgi, P. Polakoff, S., & Bemporad, J. (1986). Beta-blockers in the severely and profoundly mentally retarded. Journal of Clinical Psycho-pharmacology, 6, 103–107.Google Scholar
  124. Realmuto, G. M., Jensen, J., Klykylo, W., Piggott, L., Stubbs, G., Yuwiler, A., Geller, E., Freeman, B. J., & Ritvo, E. (1986). Untoward effects of fenfluramine in autistic children. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 6, 350–355.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  125. Remschmidt, H., Schulz, E., & Martin, P. (1994). An open trial of clozapine in thirty-six adolescents with schizophrenia. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 4, 31–41. Google Scholar
  126. Riddle, M., Geller, B., & Ryan, N. (1993). Case study: Another sudden death in a child treated with desipramine. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 792–797.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  127. Riddle, M. A., Hardin, M. T., Cho, S. C., Woolston, J. L., & Leckman, J. F. (1988). Desipramine treatment of boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and tics: Preliminary clinical experience. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 811–814.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  128. Riddle, M. A., Nelson, J. C., Kleinman, C. S., Rasmussen, A., Leckman, J. F., King, R. A., & Cohen, D. J. (1991). Sudden death in children receiving norpramin: A review of three reported cases and commentary. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 104–108.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  129. Riddle, M., Scahill, L., King, R., Hardin, M., Anderson, G., Ort, S., Smith, J., Leckman, J., & Cohen, D. (1992). Double-blind, crossover trial of fluoxetine and placebo in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1062–1069.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  130. Ritvo, E. R., Freeman, B. J., Yuwiler, A., Geller, E., Schroth, P., Yokota, A., Mason, B. A., August, G.J., Klykylo, W., & Leventhal, B. (1986). Fenfluramine treatment of autism: UCLA collaborative study of 81 patients at nine medical centers. Psychopharmacology Bulletin, 22, 133–140.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  131. Rosenbaum, J. F. (1982). The drug treatment of anxiety. New England Journal of Medicine, 306, 401–404.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  132. Roy-Byrne, P. P., & Cowley, D. S. (1991). Benzodiazepines in clinical practice: Risks and benefits. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
  133. Ryan, N. D., Meyer, V., Dachille, S., Mazzie, D., & Puig-Antich, J. (1988). Lithium antidepressant augmentation in TCA-refractory depression in adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 371–376.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  134. Ryan, N. D., Puig, A.J., Rabinovich, H., Fried, J., Ambrosini, P., Meyer, V., Torres, D., Dachille, S., & Mazzie, D. (1988). MAOIs in adolescent major depression unresponsive to tricyclic antidepressants. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 27, 755–758.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  135. Ryan, N. D., Puig-Antich, J., Ambrosini, P., Rabinovich, H., Robinson, D., Nelson, B., Iyengar, S., & Twomey, J. (1987). The clinical picture of major depression in children and adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 44, 854–861.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  136. Shader, R. I., & Greenblatt, D. J. (1993). Use of benzodiazepines in anxiety disorders. New England Journal of Medicine, 5, 1398–1405.Google Scholar
  137. Shapiro, A. K., Shapiro, E., & Fulop, G. (1987). Pimozide treatment of tic and Tourette disorders. Pediatrics, 79, 1032–1039.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  138. Simeon, J., Caney, N., Wiggins, D., Milin, R., & Hosenbocus, S. N. (1995). Risperidone effects in treatment resistant adolescents: Preliminary case reports. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 5, 69–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  139. Simeon, J. G., Dinicola, V. F., Ferguson, H. B., & Copping, W. (1990). Adolescent depression: A placebo-controlled fluoxetine treatment study and follow-up. Progress in Neuropsychopharmacological and Biological Psychiatry, 14, 791–795.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  140. Simeon, J. G., Ferguson, H. B., Knott, V., Roberts, N., Gauthier, B., Dubois, C., & Wiggins, D. (1992). Clinical, cognitive, and neurophysiological effects ofalprazolam in children and adolescents with over anxious and avoidant disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 29–35.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  141. Simeon, J. G., Ferguson, H. B., & Van Wyck Fleet, J. (1986). Bupropion effects in attention deficit and conduct disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 31, 581–585.Google Scholar
  142. Singer, S., Brown, J., Quaskey, S., Rosenberg, L., Mellits, E., & Denckla, M. (1994). The treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in Tourette’s syndrome: A double-blind placebo-controlled study with clonidine and desipramine. Pediatrics, 95, 74–81.Google Scholar
  143. Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Harding, M., O’Donnell, D., Faraone, S., & Wilens, T. (1996). Growth deficits in ADHD children revisited: Evidence for disorder-associated growth delays? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1460–1469.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  144. Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Kerman, K., Steingard, R., & Wilens, T. (1993). Desipramine in the treatment of children with tic disorder or Tourette’s syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 354–360.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  145. Spencer, T. J., Biederman, J., Steingard, R., & Wilens, T. (1993). Bupropion exacerbates tics in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and Tourette’s disorder. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 211–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  146. Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Wilens, T., Harding, M., O’Donnell, D., & Griffin, S. (1996). Pharmacotherapy of attention deficit disorder across the life cycle. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 409–432.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  147. Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Wright, V., & Danon, M. (1992). Growth deficits in children treated with desipramine: A controlled study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 235–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  148. Spencer, T., Wilens, T., Biederman, J., Fararone, S., Ablon, S., Lapey, K. (1995). A double blind, crossover comparison of methylphenolates and placebo in adults with childhood onset attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 434–443.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  149. Steingard, R., Biederman, J., Spencer, T., Wilens, T., & Gonzalez, A. (1993). Comparison of clonidine response in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with and without comorbid tic disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 350–353.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  150. Steingard, R., Goldberg, M., Lee, D.,& DeMaso, D. (1994). Adjunctive clonazepam treatment of tic symptoms in children with comorbid tic disorders and ADHD. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 394–399.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  151. Strober, M., Morrell, W., Lampert, C., & Burroughs, J. (1990). Relapse following discontinuation of lithium maintenance therapy in adolescents with bipolar I illness: A naturalistic study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 457–461.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  152. Strober, M., Schmidt-Lackner, S., Freeman, R., Bower, S., Lampert, C., & DeAntonio, M. (1995). Recovery and relapse in adolescents with bipolar affective illness: A five-year naturalistic, prospective follow-up. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 724–731.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  153. Swanson, J. M., Granger, D., & Kliewer, W. (1987). Natural social behaviors in hyperactive children: Dose effects of methylphenidate. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 55, 187–193.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  154. Swanson, J. M., McBurnett, K., Christian, D. L., & Wigal, T. (1995). Stimulant medications and the treatment of children with ADHD. In T. H. 011endick & R. Prinz (Eds.), Advances in clinical child psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 265–322). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
  155. Swedo, S. E., Leonard, H. L., & Rapoport, J. I.. (1992). Childhood-onset obsessive compulsive disorder. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 15, 767–775.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  156. Tran, P., Beasley, C., Tollefson, G. S., & Satterless, W. (1994). Clinical efficacy and safety of increasing doses of olanzapine: A new atypical antipsychotic agent. Paper presented at the American College of Neuropharmacology, Puerto Rico.Google Scholar
  157. Vitiello, B., Behar, D., Malone, R., Delaney, M. A., Ryan, P.J., & Simpson, G. M. (1988). Pharmacokinetics of lithium carbonate in children. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 8, 355–359.Google Scholar
  158. Weiss, R., Stein, M., Trommer, B., & Refetoff, S. (1993). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and thyroid function. Journal of Pediatrics, 123, 539–545.Google Scholar
  159. Weller, E. B., Weller, R. A., & Fristad, M. A. (1986). Lithium dosage guide for prepubertal children: A preliminary report. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 92–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  160. Weller, E., Weller, R., & Fristad, M. (1995). Bipolar disorder in children: Misdiagnosis, underdiagnosis, and future directions. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 709–714.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  161. Werry, J. (1994). Pharmacotherapy of disruptive behavior disorders. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 3, 321–342.Google Scholar
  162. Werry, J. S., McClellan, J. M., & Chard, L. (1991). Childhood and adolescent schizophrenic, bipolar, and schizoaffective disorders: A clinical and outcome study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 457–465.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  163. Wilder, B. J. (1992). Pharmacokinetics of valproate and carbamazepine. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 12, 64S.Google Scholar
  164. Wilens, T., & Biederman, J. (1992). The stimulants. In D. Schaffer (Ed.), Psychiatric clinics of North America (pp. 191–222). Philadelphia: Saunders.Google Scholar
  165. Wilens, T., Biederman, J., Baldessarini, J., Geller, B., Schleifer, D., Birmaher, B., & Spencer, T (1996). The cardiovascular effects of tricyclic antidepressants in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1491–1501.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  166. Wilens, T. E., Biederman, J., Baldessarini, R. J., Puopolo, P. R., & Flood, J. G. (1992). Developmental changes in serum concentrations of desipramine and 2-hydroxydesipramine during treatment with desipramine. Journal of theAmerican Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 691–698.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  167. Wilens, T., Biederman, J., & Spencer, T. (1994). Clonidine for sleep disturbances associated with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 424–426.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  168. Wilens, T., Spencer, T., Biederman, J., & Schleifer, D. (1997). Nefazadone for juvenile mood disorders: Case series. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 481–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  169. Wilens, T., Spencer, T., Biederman, J., Wozniak, J., & Connor, D. (1995). Combined pharmacotherapy: An emerging trend in pediatric psychopharmacology. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 110–112.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  170. Williams, D. T, Mehl, R., Yudofsky, S., Adams, D., & Roseman, B. (1982). The effect of propranolol on uncontrolled rage outbursts in children and adolescents with organic brain dysfunction. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 21, 129–135.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  171. Wozniak, J., & Biederman, J. (1995). Childhood mania exists (and coexists) with ADHD. American Society of Clinical Psychopharmacology Progress Notes, 6, 4–5.Google Scholar
  172. Wozniak, J., & Biederman, J. (1996). A pharmacological approach to the quagmire of comorbidity in juvenile mania. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 826–828.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  173. Wozniak, J., Biederman, J., Kiely, K., Ablon, S., Faraone, S. V., Mundy, E., & Mennin, D. (1995). Mania-like symptoms suggestive of childhood-onset bipolar disorder in clinically referred children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 867–876.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  174. Zametkin, A., Rapoport, J. L., Murphy, D. L., Linnoila, M., & Ismond, D. (1985). Treatment of hyperactive children with monoamine oxidase inhibitors: I. Clinical efficacy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42, 962–966.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1998

Authors and Affiliations

  • Timothy E. Wilens
    • 1
  • Thomas J. Spencer
    • 1
  • Jean Frazier
    • 1
  • Joseph Biederman
    • 2
  1. 1.Pediatric Psychopharmacology Unit, Department of PsychiatryMassachusetts General Hospital Boston and Harvard Medical SchoolCambridgeBoston
  2. 2.Joint Program in Pediatric PsychopharmacologyMassachusetts General Hospital and McLean Hospital, Boston and Harvard Medical SchoolCambridgeBoston

Personalised recommendations