Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism? pp 79-106 | Cite as
High-Functioning People with Autism and Asperger Syndrome
Abstract
The number of papers on Asperger syndrome (AS) and high-functioning autism (HFA) is growing at a fast pace. At least 140 articles have appeared in the English language over the last 14 years. More than two-thirds of these were published in the last 5 years. This chapter aims to review (1) the history of AS and HFA, (2) current diagnostic concepts and criteria, (3) some of the controversial issues pertaining to diagnosis, and then to (4) selectively review the studies in the field with a view to identifying possible unifying/differentiating features of these two disorders. Finally, there is also a brief section on intervention guidelines based mostly on the authors’ many years of clinical experience with individuals with HFA/AS.
Keywords
Autism Spectrum Disorder Personality Disorder Adolescent Psychiatry Autistic Disorder Pervasive Developmental DisorderPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
- Ahlsén, G., Rosengren, L., Betfrage, M., Palm, A., Haglid, K., Hamberger, A., & Gillberg, C. (1993). Glial fibrillary acidic protein in the cerebrospinal fluid of children with autism and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 33. 734–743.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- American Psychiatric Association. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (3rd ed. rev.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
- American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
- Annerén, G., Dahl, N., & Janols, L.-O. (1994). Asperger syndrome in a boy with a balanced de novo translocation: t(17; 1 9)(p 13. 3;p 11). American Journal of Medical Genetics, 56, 1–8.Google Scholar
- Asperger, H. (1944). Die “autistischen Psychopathen” im Kindesalter. Archiv für Psychiatrie and Nervenkrankheiten, 117, 76–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Asperger, H. (1950). Bild and soziale Wertigkeit der autistischen Psychopathen. Proceedings of the 2nd International Congress on Orthopedagogics. Keesing, Amsterdam: Publ. Systemen.Google Scholar
- Asperger, H. (1952). Healpädagogik. Berlin: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A. M., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a theory of mind? Cognition, 21, 37–46.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Beier, H. (1993). Autistiska syndrom. En angelägenhet även inom vuxenpsykiatrin. Autistic syndromes. A concern also in adult psychiatry. Läkartidningen, 90, 4560–4564.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Berthier, M. L., Bayes, A., & Tolosa, E. S. (1993). Magnetic resonance imaging in patients with concurrent Tourette’s disorder and Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 633–639.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Berthier, M. L., Santamaria, J., Encabo, H., & Tolosa, E. S. (1992). Case study: Recurrent hypersomnia in two adolescent males with Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 735–738.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bishop, D. V. M. (1989). Autism, Asperger’s syndrome and semantic-pragmatic disorders. Where are the boundaries? British Journal of Disorders of Communication, 24, 107–121.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bolton, P., & Rutter, M. (1990). Genetic influences in autism. International Review of Psychiatry, 2, 67–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bowler, D. M. (1992). “Theory of mind” in Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33,877–893.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bowler, D. M., & Worley, K. (1994). Suspectibility to social influence in adults with Asperger’s syndrome: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 689–697.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Bowman, E. P. (1988). Asperger’s syndrome and autism: The case for a connection. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 377–382.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Burgoine, E., & Wing, L. (1983). Identical triplets with Asperger’s syndrome. British Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 261–265.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Caron, C., & Rutter, M. (1991). Comorbidity in child psychopathology: Concepts, issues and research strategies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1063–1080.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Dauner, I., & Martin, M. (1978). Autismus Asperger oder Früschizophrenie? Zur nosologischen Abgrenzung beider Krankheitsbilder. Paediatrische Paedologie, 13, 31–38.Google Scholar
- DeLong, G. R., & Dwyer, J. T. (1988). Correlation of family history with specific autistic subgroups: Asperger’s syndrome and bipolar affective disease. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 18, 593–600.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- DeLong, R., & Nohria, C. (1994). Psychiatric family history and neurological disease in autism spectrum disorders. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 36, 441–448.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- DeMyer, M., Hingtgen, J. M., & Jackson, R. K. (1981). Infantile autism reviewed: A decade of research. Schizophrenic Bulletin, 7, 388–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Eaves, L. C., Ho, H. H., & Eaves, D. M. (1994) Subtypes of autism by cluster analysis. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 3–22.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ehlers, S., & Gillberg, C. (1993). The epidemiology of Asperger syndrome. A total population study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 1327–1350.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ehlers, S., Nydén, A., Gillberg, C., Dahlgren Sandberg, A., Dahlgren, S.-O., Hjelmquist, E., & Oden, A. (1997). Asperger syndrome, autism and attention disorders: A comparative study of the cognitive profiles of 120 children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 207–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ellis, H.D., Ellis, D. M., Fraser, W., & Deb, S. (1994). A preliminary study of right hemisphere cognitive deficits and impaired social judgements among young people with Asperger syndrome. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 3, 255–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Fine, J., Bartolucci, G., Ginsberg, G., & Szatmari, P. (1991). The use of intonation to communicate in pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 771–782.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Fine, J., Bartolucci, G., Szatmari, P., & Ginsberg, G. (1994). Cohesive discourse in pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24, 315–329.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Folstein, S. E., & Piven, J. (1991). Etiology of autism: Genetic influences. Paediatrics, 87, 767–773.Google Scholar
- Frith, U. (1989). Autism and “theory of mind.” In C. Gillberg (Ed.), Diagnosis and treatment of autism (pp. 33–52). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
- Frith, U. (1991). `Autistic psychopathy’ in childhood. In U. Frith (Ed.), Autism and Asperger syndrome (pp. 37–92). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Frith, U. (1994). Understanding the mind in autism and Asperger syndrome. Autism Conference, Olso, Norway.Google Scholar
- Ghaziuddin, M., Butler, E., Tsai, L., & Ghaziuddin, N. (1994). Is clumsiness a marker for Asperger syndrome? Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 38, 519–527.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ghaziuddin, M., Tsai, L. Y., & Ghaziuddin, N. (1992). Brief report: A reappraisal of clumsiness as a diagnostic feature of Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 22, 651–656.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ghaziuddin, N., Metier, L., Ghaziuddin, M., Tsai, L., & Giordani, B. (1993). Three siblings with Asperger syndrome: A family case history. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2, 44–49.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C. (1983). Psychotic behaviour in children and young adults in a mental handicap hostel. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 68, 351–358.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C. (1985). Asperger’s syndrome and recurrent psychosis-a case study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 15, 389–397.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C. (1989). Asperger syndrome in 23 Swedish children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 31, 520–531.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C. (1991). Clinical and neurobiological aspects of Asperger syndrome in six family studies. In U. Frith (Ed.), Autism and Asperger syndrome (pp. 122–146). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C. (1992). The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture 1991: Autism and autistic-like conditions: subclasses among disorders of empathy. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 813–842.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C. (1995). The prevalence of autism and autism spectrum disorders. In F. C. Verhulst & H. M. Koot (Eds.), The epidemiology of child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 227–257). London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
- Gillberg, C., & Coleman, M. (1992). The biology of the autistic syndromes (2nd ed.). London: Mac Keith Press.Google Scholar
- Gillberg, C., & Forsell, C. (1984). Childhood psychosis and neurofibromatosis-more than a coincidence? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 14, 1–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C., & Schaumann, H. (1982). Social class and infantile autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 12, 223–228.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C., Steffenburg, S., & Jakobsson, G. (1987). Neurobiological findings in 20 relatively gifted children with Kanner-type autism or Asperger syndrome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 29, 641–649.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, C., Steffenburg, S., & Schaumann, H. (1991). Is autism more common now than 10 years ago? British Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 403–409.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, I. C., Bjure, J., Uvebrandt, P., & Gillberg, C. (1993). SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) in 31 children and adolescents with autism and autistic-like conditions. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2,50–59.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, I. C., & Gillberg, C. (1989). Asperger syndrome-some epidemiological considerations: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30,631–638.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, I. C., Gillberg, C., & Ahlsén, G. (1994). Autistic behaviour and attention deficits in tuberous sclerosis. Apopulation-based study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology,36, 50–56.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gillberg, I. C., Rástam, M., & Gillberg, C. (1994). Anorexia nervosa outcome: Six year controlled longitudinal study of 51 cases including a population cohort. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 33, 729–739.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gordon, C. T., Frazier, J. A., McKenna, K., Giedd, J., Zametkin, A., Zahn, T., Hommer, D., Hong, W., Kaysen, D., Albus, K. E., & Rapoport, J. L. (1994). Childhood onset schizophrenia: An NIMH study in progress. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20,697–712.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gordon, C. T., State, R. C., Nelson, J. E., Hamburger, S. D., & Rapoport, J. L. (1993). A double-blind comparison of clomipramine, desipramine, and placebo in the treatment of autistic disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50,441–447.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Gray, C. (1994). Social interventions with high-functioning people with autism. Paper read at the 15th Annual TEACCH Conference on High-Functioning Autism and Asperger Syndrome, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
- Hagerman, R. J. (1989). Chromosomes, genes and autism. In C. Gillberg (Ed.), Diagnosis and treatment of autism (pp. 105–132). New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
- Happé, F. G. E. (1994). Current psychological theories of autism: The “theory of mind” account and rival theories. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 215–229.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hellgren, L., Gillberg, I. C., Bágenholm, A., & Gillberg, C. (1994). Children with deficits in attention, motor control and perception (DAMP) almost grown up: Psychiatric and personality disorders at age 16 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35,1255–1271.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Herold, S., Frackowiak, R. S. J., Le Couteur, A., Rutter, M., & Nowlin, R. (1988). Cerebral blood flow and metabolism of oxygen and glucose in young autistic adults. Psychological Medicine, 18,823–831.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Horwitz, B., Rumsey, J. M., Grady, C. L., & Rapoport, S. I. (1988). The cerebral metabolic landscape in autism. Intercorrelations of regional glucose utilization. Archives of Neurology,45, 749–755.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Hurlbut, R. T., Happé, F., & Frith, U. (1994). Sampling the form of inner experience in three adults with Asperger syndrome. Psychological Medicine,24, 385–395.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kanner, L. (1954). To what extent is early childhood autism determined by constitutional inadequacies? Proceedings of the Association for Research in Nervous and Mental Diseases,33, 378–385.Google Scholar
- Klin, A. (1993). Listening preferences in regard to speech in four children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34,763–769.Google Scholar
- Kline, P. (1991). Intelligence. The psychometric review. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
- Kracke, I. (1994). Developmental prosopagnosia in Asperger syndrome: Presentation and discussion of an individual case. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 36,873–886.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Kretschmer, E. (1925). Physique and character. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner (original work published 1924).Google Scholar
- Landa, R., Piven, J., Wzorek, M. M., Gayle, J. O., Chase, G. A., & Fnlstein, S. E. (1992). Social language in parents of autistic individuals. Psychological Medicine,22, 245–254.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lister-Brook, S., & Bowler, D. M. (1992). Autism by another name? Semantic and pragmatic impáirments in children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,22, 61–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Lockyer, L., & Rutter, M. (1970). A five-to fifteen-year follow-up study of infantile psychosis. IV: Patterns of cognitive ability. British Journal of Social and Cognitive Ability, 9,152–163.Google Scholar
- Lotter, V. (1966). Epidemiology of autistic conditions in young children. 1. Prevalence. Social Psychiatry, 1, 124–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Marriage, K., Miles, T., Stokes, D., & Davey, M. (1993). Clinical and research implications of the co-occurrence of Asperger’s and Tourette syndrome. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 27, 666–672.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- McEvoy, R. E., Roger, S. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1993). Executive function and social communication deficits in young autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 563–578.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Newson, J., & Newson, E. (1979). The handicapped child: What is an autistic child. Nursing Times,75, Suppl. 4–5.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Ozonoff, S. (1994). Neuropsychological abilities in high functioning autism and Asperger syndrome. Paper read at the 15th Annual TEACCH Conference on High-Functioning Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome.Google Scholar
- Ozonoff, S., Rogers, S. J., & Pennington, B. F. (1991). Asperger’s syndrome: Evidence of an empirical distinction from high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1107–1122.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Piven, J., Nehme, E., Simon, J., Barta, P., Pearlson, G., & Folstein, S. E. (1992). Magnetic resonance imaging in autism: Measurement of the cerebellum. Biological Psychiatry, 31, 491–504.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Prior, M., Dahlstrom, B., & Squires, T.-L. (1990). Autistic children’s knowledge of thinking and feeling states in other people. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 587–601.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ramberg, C., Ehlers, S., Nydén, A., Gillberg, C., & Johansson, M. (1996). Language and pragmatic functions in school-age children on the autism spectrum. European Journal of Disorders of Communication 31, 387–414.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rástam, M., Gillberg, C., & Garton, M. (1989). Anorexia nervosa in a Swedish urban region. A population-based study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 642–646.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Rickarby, G., Carruthers, A., & Mitchell, M. (1991). Brief report: Biological factors associated with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, 341–348.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Robinson, J. F., & Vitale, L. J. (1954). Children with circumscribed interest patterns. Paper presented at the 1953 Annual Meeting. Children’s Service Center of Wyoming Valley, Wilkes-Barre, PA.Google Scholar
- Rourke, B. P. (1988). The syndrone of non-verbal learning disabled children: Developmental manifestations of neurological disease. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 2, 293–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rumsey, J. M. (1985). Conceptual problem-solving in highly verbal, nonretarded, autistic men. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 15, 23–36.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rumsey, J. M., & Hamburger, S. D. (1988). Neuropsychological findings in high-functioning men with infantile autism, residual state. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 10, 201–221.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rumsey, J. M., Rapoport, J. L., & Sceery, W. R. (1985). Autistic children as adults: Psychiatric and behavioral outcomes. Journal of The American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 465–473.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Rutter, M. (1985). Diagnosis and definition. In M. Rutter & L. Hersov (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry: Modern approaches (pp. 1–25). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.Google Scholar
- Rutter, M. (1994). Genetic aspects of autism. Paper read at the Autism on the Agenda Conference, Leeds.Google Scholar
- Sacks, O. (1995). An anthropologist on Mars. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
- Sanchez, L. (1994). Clomipramine in child neuropsychiatry. Paper read at Recent Advances in Child Neuropsychiatry Research Seminar, Göteborg, Sweden.Google Scholar
- Schopler, E., Andrew, C. E., & Strupp, K. (1979). Do autistic children come from upper-class parents? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9, 139–152.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Schopler, E., Reichler, R. J., & Renner, B. R. (1988). The Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS). Revised. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
- Scragg, P., & Shah, A. (1994). Prevalence of Asperger’s syndrome in a secure hospital. British Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 679–682.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Shea, V., & Mesibov, G. B. (1985). Brief report: The relationship of learning disabilities and higher-level autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 15, 425–435.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Sparrow, S. S., Rescorla, L. A., Provence, S., Condon, S. O., Goudreau, D., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1986). Follow-up of “atypical” children-a brief report. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 25, 181–185.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Ssucharewa, G. E. (1926). Die Schizoiden Psychopathien im Kindesalter. Monatsschrift für Psychiatrie and Neurologie, 60, 235–261.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Strayhorn, J. (1989). More on methylphenidate in autism [letter]. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 299.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Szatmari, P. (1989). The diagnosis of Asperger’s syndrome and autistic disorder using DSM-III-R. Unpublished manuscript (Report to DSM-IV committee).Google Scholar
- Szatmari, P., Bartolucci, G., & Bremner, R. (1989). Asperger’s syndrome and autism: Comparisons on early history and outcome. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 31, 709–720.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Szatmari, P., Offord, D. R., Siegel, L. S., Finlayson, M. A. J., & Tuff, L. (1990). The clinical significance of neurocognitive impairments among children with psychiatric disorders: Diagnosis and situational specificity. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 287–299.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Swettenham, J. (1995, April 27). Detection of autism in primary care. Paper presented at the ACPP-Midlands Branch Research Day-Advances in the Assessment of Autism, Birmingham, England.Google Scholar
- Tantam, D. (1988). Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 29, 245–255.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tantam, D. (1991). Asperger syndrome in adulthood. In U. Frith (Ed.), Autism and Asperger syndrome (pp. 147–183). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tantam, D., Evered, C., & Hersov, L. (1990). Asperger’s syndrome and ligamentus laxity. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 29, 892–896.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Tantam, D., Holmes, D., & Cordess, C. (1993). Nonverbal expression in autism of Asperger type. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 23, 111–133.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Twachtman, D. (1994). Social and communication needs in Asperger syndrome: Variations on the theme of autism. Paper read at the 15th Annual TEACCH Conference on Asperger Syndrome and High-Functioning Autism, Chapel Hill.Google Scholar
- Van Krevelen, D. A. (1971). Early infantile autism and autistic psychopathy. Journal of Autism and Childhood Schizophrenia, 1, 82–86.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Van Krevelen, D. A., & Kuipers, C. (1962). The psychopathology of autistic psychopathy. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 29, 22–31.PubMedGoogle Scholar
- Whitmore, K., & Bax, M. (1986). The school entry medical examination. Archives of Diseases in Childhood, 61, 807–817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wing, L. (1980). Childhood autism and social class: A question of selection. British Journal of Psychiatry, 137, 410–417.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wing, L. (1981a). Asperger’s syndrome: A clinical account. Psychological Medicine, 11, 115–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wing, L. (1981b). Sex ratios in early childhood autism and related conditions. Psychiatry Research, 5, 129–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wing, L. (1993). The definition and prevalence of autism: A review. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 2, 61–74.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wing, L., & Gould, J. (1979). Severe impairments of social interaction and associated abnormalities in children: Epidemiology and classification. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 9, 11–29. PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wing, L., & Shah, A. (1994, April 8–10). Catatonic features in autism. Paper read at the Autism on the Agenda Conference, Leeds.Google Scholar
- Wolff, S. (1991). Schizoid personality in childhood and adult life. I: The vagaries of diagnostic labelling. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 615–620.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wolff, S. (1996). The first account of the syndrome Asperger described? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 5,119–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wolff, S., & Chick, J. (1980). Schizoid personality in childhood: A controlled follow-up study. Psychological Medicine, 10, 85–100.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- Wolff, S., Townsend, R., McGuire, R. J., & Weeks, D. J. (1991). Schizoid personality in childhood and adult life. II: Adult adjustment and the continuity with schizotypal personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 620–629.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
- World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Clinical descriptions and guidelines. Geneva: Author.Google Scholar
- World Health Organization. (1993). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Diagnostic criteria for research. Geneva: Author.Google Scholar
- Wurst, E. (1974). Lernstörungen aus der Sicht des Arztes. Paediatrische Paedologie, 9, 329–335.Google Scholar