The chemical senses

  • G. K. Beauchamp
  • J. G. Brand
Part of the Advances in Meat Research book series (ADMERE, volume 9)

Abstract

The flavor of a food can be defined as the combination of its taste, smell, chemical irritation (the common chemical sense), and temperature. In this chapter, the contribution of taste and smell will be discussed. In the first sections, basic anatomy and physiology of the chemical senses will be described. Some indication of the rapid strides in understanding reception and transduction will also be provided. Much of this information has recently been reviewed in detail by Brand and Shah (1992). Leaning heavily on this review, in the beginning of this chapter an overview of this rapidly advancing area will be provided. In subsequent sections the psychological aspects of the chemical senses, with particular emphasis on the basis for preference and aversions will be concentrated upon. In the final section issues related to specific appetites for salt and protein and to mixtures will be dealt with briefly.

Keywords

Olfactory Receptor Taste Receptor Taste Preference Taste Quality Taste Stimulus 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Akabas, M.H., Dodd, J. and Al-Awquati, Q. (1988) A bitter substance induces a rise in intracellular calcium in a subpopulation of rat taste cells. Science 242, 1047.Google Scholar
  2. Avenet, P. and Lindemann, B. (1989) Chemoreception of salt taste, in Chemical Senses Vol 1. Receptor Events and Transduction in Taste and Olfaction (eds J.G. Brand, J.H. Teeter, R.H. Cagan and M.R. Kare), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 171–82.Google Scholar
  3. Avenet, P., Hofmann, F. and Lindemann, B. (1988) Transduction in taste receptor cells requires cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Nature, 331, 351.Google Scholar
  4. Bartoshuk, L.M. (1989) Taste: Robust across the lifespan, in Nutrition and the Chemical Senses in Aging: Recent Advances and Current Research Needs (eds C. Murphy, W.S. Cain and D.M. Hegsted), Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 561, 65.Google Scholar
  5. Beatty, R.M. and Cragg, L.H. (1935) The sourness of acids. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 57, 2347.Google Scholar
  6. Beauchamp, G.K. and Cowart, B.J. (1990) Preference for high salt concentrations among children. Dev. Psychol. 26, 539.Google Scholar
  7. Beauchamp, G.K. and Mason, J.R. (1991) Comparative hedonics of taste, in The Hedonics of Taste (ed. R.C. Bolles), Lawrence Evlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey, pp. 159–84.Google Scholar
  8. Beauchamp, G.K. and Moran, M. (1982) Dietary experience and sweet taste preference in human infants. Appetite: J. Intake Res. 3, 139.Google Scholar
  9. Beauchamp, G.K., Mailer, O. and Rogers, J.G. (1977) Flavor preferences in cats. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 91, 1118.Google Scholar
  10. Beauchamp, G.K., Cowart, B.J. and Moran, M. (1986) Developmental changes in salt acceptability in human infants. Devel. Psychol. 19, 17.Google Scholar
  11. Beauchamp, G.K., Vazquez de Vaquera, M. and Pearson, P.B. (1987) Dietary status of human infants and their sensory responses to amino acid flavor, in Umami: A Basic Taste (eds Y. Kawamura and M.R. Kare), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 125–38.Google Scholar
  12. Beauchamp, G.K., Bertino, M., Burke, D. and Engelman, K. (1990) Experimental sodium depletion and salt taste in normal human volunteers. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 51, 881.Google Scholar
  13. Beauchamp, G.K., Cowart, B. and Schmidt, H.J. (1991a) Development of chemosensory sensitivity and preference, in Smell and Taste in Health and Disease (eds T.V. Getchell, R.L. Doty, L.M. Bartoshuk and J.B. Snow), Raven Press, New York, pp. 405–16.Google Scholar
  14. Beauchamp, G.K., Bertino, M. and Engelman, K. (1991b) Human salt appetite, in Chemical Senses: Appetite and Nutrition, Vol. 4 (eds M.I. Friedman, M.G. Tordoff and M.R. Kare), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 185–97.Google Scholar
  15. Beidler, L.M. and Smallman, R.L. (1965) Renewal of cells within taste buds. J. Cell. Biol. 27, 263.Google Scholar
  16. Bertino, M., Engelman, K. and Beauchamp, G.K. (1982) Long-term reduction in dietary sodium alters the taste of salt. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36, 1134.Google Scholar
  17. Bertino, M., Beauchamp, G.K. and Engelman, K. (1986) Increasing dietary salt alters salt taste preference. Physiol. Behav. 31, 825.Google Scholar
  18. Blais, C., Pangborn, R.M., Borhani, N.O., Ferrell, M.F., Prineas, R.J. and Laing, B. (1986) Effect of dietary sodium restriction on taste responses to sodium chloride: A longitudinal study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 44, 323.Google Scholar
  19. Boekhoff, I., Tareilus, E., Stroutmann, J. and Breer, H. (1990) Rapid activation of alternative second messenger pathways in olfactory cilia from rats by different odorants. EMBO J. 9, 2453.Google Scholar
  20. Bradley, R.M. (1972) Development of the taste bud and gustatory papillae in human fetuses, in The Third Symposium on Oral Sensation and Perception: The Mouth of the Infant (ed. J.F. Bosma), Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, Illinois, pp. 137–62.Google Scholar
  21. Bradley, R.M. and Stern, I.B. (1967) The development of the human taste bud during the foetal period. J. Anat. 101, 743.Google Scholar
  22. Brand, J.G. and Shah, P.S. (1992) The transduction of taste and olfactory stimuli, in Physical Chemistry of Food (eds H. Schwartzberg and R. Hartel), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 517–540.Google Scholar
  23. Brand, J.G., Teeter, J.H. and Silver, W.L. (1985) Inhibition by amiloride of chorda tympani responses evoked by monovalent salts. Brain Res. 34, 207.Google Scholar
  24. Brand, J.G., Teeter, J.H., Cagan, R.H. and Kare, M.R. (eds) (1989) Chemical Senses: Vol. 1, Receptor Events and Transduction in Taste and Olfaction. Marcel Dekker, New York.Google Scholar
  25. Brand, J.G., Teeter, J.H., Kumazawa, T., Huque, T. and Bayley, D.L. (1991) Transduction mechanisms for the taste of amino acids. Physiol. Behav. 49, 899.Google Scholar
  26. Breer, H. and Boekhoff, I. (1991) Odorants of the same odor class activate different second messenger pathways. Chem. Senses 16, 19.Google Scholar
  27. Breer, H., Boekhoff, I. and Tareilus, E. (1990) Rapid kinetics of second messenger formation in olfactory transduction. Nature 345, 65.Google Scholar
  28. Bruch, R.C. and Kalinoski, D.L. (1987) Interaction of GTP-binding regulatory proteins with chemosensory receptors. J. Biol. Chem. 262, 2401.Google Scholar
  29. Bruch, R.C. and Rulli, R.D. (1988) Ligand binding specificity of a neutral L-amino acid olfactory receptor. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 91B, 535.Google Scholar
  30. Buck, L. and Axel, R. (1991) A novel multi-gene family may encode odorant receptors: A molecular basis for odor recognition. Cell 65, 175.Google Scholar
  31. Cain, W.S. and Stevens, J.C. (1989) Uniformity of olfactory loss in aging, in Nutrition and the Chemical Senses in Aging: Recent Advances and Current Research Needs (eds C. Murphy, W.S. Cain and D.M. Hegsted), Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 561, 29.Google Scholar
  32. Christensen, C.M., Brand, J.G. and Malamud, D. (1987) Salivary changes in solution pH: A source of individual differences in sour taste perception. Physiol. Behav. 40, 221.Google Scholar
  33. Cowart, B.J. (1989) Relationships between taste and smell across the lifespan, in Nutrition and the Chemical Senses in Aging: Recent Advances and Current Research Needs (eds C. Murphy, W.S. Cain and D.M. Hegsted), Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 561, 39.Google Scholar
  34. Denton, D. (1982) The Hunger for Salt, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.Google Scholar
  35. DeSimone, J.A., Heck, G.L., Mierson, S. and DeSimone, S.K. (1984) The active ion transport properties of canine lingual epithelium in vitro. Implications for gustatory transduction. J. Gen. Physiol. 83, 633.Google Scholar
  36. DeSimone, J.A., Heck, G.L., Persaud, K.C. and Mierson, S. (1989) Stimulus-evoked transepithelial lingual currents and the gustatory neural response, in Chemical Senses Vol. 1: Receptor Events and Transduction in Taste and Olfaction (eds J.G. Brand, J.H. Teeter, R.H. Cagan & M.R. Kare), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 13–34.Google Scholar
  37. De Snoo, K. (1937) Das trinkende kind im uterus. Monatsschr. Geburtschilfe Gynaekol. 105, 88.Google Scholar
  38. Desor, J.A. and Beauchamp, G.K. (1987) Longitudinal changes in sweet preference in humans. Physiol. Behav. 39, 639.Google Scholar
  39. Desor, J.A., Mailer, O. and Turner, R.E. (1973) Taste in acceptance of sugars by human infants. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol., 84, 496.Google Scholar
  40. Desor, J.A., Greene, L.S. and Mailer, O. (1975a) Preference for sweet and salty in 9- to 15-year-olds and adult humans. Science 190, 686.Google Scholar
  41. Desor, J.A., Mailer, O. and Andrews, K. (1975b) Ingestive responses of human newborns to salty, sour and bitter stimuli. J. Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 89, 966.Google Scholar
  42. Deutsch, J.A., Moore, B.O. and Heinrichs, S.C. (1989) Unlearned specific appetite for protein. Physiol. Behav. 46, 619.Google Scholar
  43. Dorries, K.M., Schmidt, H.J., Beauchamp, G.K. and Wysocki, C.J. (1989) Changes in sensitivity to the odor of androstenone during adolescence. Devel. Psychobiol. 22, 423.Google Scholar
  44. Doty, R. (1989) Influence of age and age-related diseases on olfactory function, in Nutrition and the Chemical Senses in Aging: Recent Advances and Current Research Needs (eds C. Murphy, W.S. Cain and D.M. Hegsted), Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 561, 76.Google Scholar
  45. El-Deiry, A. and McCabe, B.F. (1990) Temporal lobe tumor manifested by localized dysgeusia. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 99, 586.Google Scholar
  46. Engen, T. (1982) The Perception of Odors, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
  47. Epstein, A.N. and Sakai, R.R. (1987) Angiotensin-aldosterone synergy and salt intake, in Brain Peptides and Catecholamines in Cardiovascular Regulation in Normal and Disease States (eds J.P. Buckley and C. Ferrario), Raven Press, New York.Google Scholar
  48. Erickson, R.P. and Covey, E. (1980) On the singularity of taste sensations: What is a taste primary? Physiol. Behav. 25, 527.Google Scholar
  49. Farbman, A.I. (1980) Renewal of taste bud cells in rat circumvallate papillae. Cell Tissue Kinet. 13, 349.Google Scholar
  50. Formaker, B.K. and Hill, D.L. (1988) An analysis of residual NaCl taste response after amiloride. Am. J. Physiol. 255, R1002.Google Scholar
  51. Friedman, M.I., Tordoff, M.G. and Kare, M.R. (eds) (1991) Chemical Senses. Vol. 4. Appetite and Nutrition, Marcel Dekker, New York.Google Scholar
  52. Ganchrow, J.R., Steiner, J.E. and Munif, D. (1983) Neonatal facial expressions in response to different qualities and intensities of gustatory stimulation. Infant Behav. Dev. 6, 473.Google Scholar
  53. Ganzevles, P.G.J, and Kroeze, J.H.A. (1987) The sour taste of acids. The hydrogen ion and the undissociated acid as sour agents. Chem. Senses, 12, 563.Google Scholar
  54. Gardner, R.J. (1980) Lipid solubility and the sourness of acids: Implications for models of the acid taste receptor. Chem. Senses Flav. 5, 185–94.Google Scholar
  55. Gibson, E.L. and Booth, D.A. (1985) Acquired protein appetite in rats: Dependence on a protein-specific need state. Experientia 42, 1003.Google Scholar
  56. Gilbert, A.N. and Wysocki, C.J. (1987) National Geographic smell survey: The results. Natl. Geogr. 122, 514.Google Scholar
  57. Gilbertson, T.A., Avenet, P., Kinnamon, S.C. and Roper, S.D. (1991) In situ recording from hamster fungiform taste cells: Response to sour stimuli. Soc. Neurosci. Abstr. 17, 481.5.Google Scholar
  58. Harper, H. W., Jay, J.R. and Erickson, R.P. (1966) Chemically-evoked sensations from single human taste papillae. Physiol. Behav. 1, 319.Google Scholar
  59. Harris, G. and Booth, D.A. (1985) Infant’s preference for salt in foods: Its dependence upon recent dietary experience. J. Rep. Infant Psychol. 5, 97.Google Scholar
  60. Heinrichs, S.C., Deutsch, J.A. and Moore, B.O. (1990) Olfactory self-selection of protein-containing foods. Physiol. Behav. 49, 927.Google Scholar
  61. Hellekant, G. and Ninomiya, Y. (1991) On the taste of umami in chimpanzee. Physiol. Behav. 49, 927.Google Scholar
  62. Hill, D.L. and Prezkop, P.R., Jr. (1988) Influences of dietary sodium on functional taste receptor development: A sensitive period. Science 241, 1826.Google Scholar
  63. Hornung, D.E. and Enns, M.P. (1989) Separating the contributions of smells and tastes in flavor perception, in Perception of Complex Smells and Tastes, Academic Press, New York, pp. 285–87.Google Scholar
  64. Huque, T. and Bruch, R.C. (1986) Odorant- and guanine nucleotide-stimulated phosphoino-sitide turnover in olfactory cilia. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 137, 36.Google Scholar
  65. Jones, D.T. and Reed, R.R. (1989) Golf: An olfactory neuron-specific G-protein involved in odorant signal transduction. Science 219, 408.Google Scholar
  66. Kandel, E.R. and Schwartz, J.H. (1985) Principles of Natural Science, Elsevier, New York.Google Scholar
  67. Kare, M.R. (1971) Comparative study of taste, in Handbook of Sensory Physiology. Vol. IV. Chemical Senses. Part 2. Taste (ed. L.M. Beidler), Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg, pp. 278–92.Google Scholar
  68. Kawamura, Y. and Kare, M.R. (eds.) (1987) Umami: A Basic Taste, Marcel Dekker, New York.Google Scholar
  69. Kinnamon, S.C. (1988) Taste transduction: A diversity of mechanisms. Trends Neurosci. 11, 491.Google Scholar
  70. Kumazawa, T., Kashiwayanagi, M. and Kurihara, K. (1986) Contribution of electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions of bitter substances with taste receptor membrane to generation of receptor potentials. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 888, 62–69.Google Scholar
  71. Kumazawa, T., Nomura, T. and Kurihara, K. (1988) Liposomes as a model for taste cells: Receptor sites for bitter substances including N-C = S substances and mechanism of membrane potential change. Biochem. 27, 1239.Google Scholar
  72. Laffort, P. (1989) Models for describing intensity interaction in odor mixtures: A reappraisal, in Perception of Complex Smells and Tastes, Academic Press, New York, pp. 205–22.Google Scholar
  73. Laing, D.G., Livermore, B.A. and Francis, G.W. (1991) The human sense of smell has a limited capacity for identifying odors in mixtures. Chem. Senses 16, 392.Google Scholar
  74. Laing, D.G. (1989) The role of physicochemical and neural factors in the perception of odor mixtures, in Perception of Complex Smells and Tastes, Academic Press, New York, pp. 189–204.Google Scholar
  75. Laing, D.G., Cain, W.S., McBride, R.L. and Ache, B.W. (eds) (1989) Perception of Complex Smells and Tastes, Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
  76. Lancet, D. and Ben-Arie, N. (1991) Sweet taste transduction, in Sweeteners: Discovery, Molecular Design and Chemoreception (eds D.E. Walters, F.T. Orthoefer and G.E. DuBois), American. Chemical. Society, Washington DC, pp. 226–36.Google Scholar
  77. Lawless, H. (1980) A comparison of different methods used to assess sensitivity to the taste of phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). Chem. Senses 5, 247.Google Scholar
  78. Macdonald, D.W., Muller, D. and Natynczuk, S.E. (eds.) (1991) Chemical Signals in Vertebrates 5, Oxford University Press, Oxford.Google Scholar
  79. Maone, T.R., Mattes, R.D., Bernbaum, J.C. and Beauchamp, G.K. (1990) A new method for delivering a taste without fluids to preterm and term infants. Dev. Psychobiol. 23, 179.Google Scholar
  80. McBride, R.L. (1989) Three models for taste mixtures, in Perception of Complex Smells and Tastes, Academic Press, New York, pp. 265–80.Google Scholar
  81. McBurney, D.H. and Gent, J.F. (1979) On the nature of taste qualities. Psychol. Bull. 86, 151.Google Scholar
  82. Mennella, J.A. and Beauchamp, G.K. (1992) Olfactory preference in children and adults, in The Human Sense of Smell (eds D.G. Laing, R.L. Doty and W. Brespohl), Springer, Berlin, pp. 167–80.Google Scholar
  83. Miller, I.J., Jr. and Bartoshuk, L.M. (1991) Taste perception, taste bud distribution and spatial relationships, in Smell and Taste in Health and Disease (eds T.V. Getchell, R.L. Doty, L.M. Bartoshuk and J.B. Snow, Jr.), Raven Press, New York, pp. 205–23.Google Scholar
  84. Moncrieff, R.W. (1966) Odour Preferences, John Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
  85. Moskowitz, H.R., Kumraiah, V., Sharma, K.N., Jacobs, H.L. and Sharma, D. (1975) Cross-cultural differences in simple taste preferences. Science 190, 1217.Google Scholar
  86. Murphy, C. and Cain, W.S. (1980) Taste and olfaction: Independence vs. interaction. Physiol Behav. 24, 601.Google Scholar
  87. Murphy, C., Cardello, A.V. and Brand, J.G. (1981) Tastes of 15 halide salts following water and NaCl: Anion and cation effects. Physiol Behav. 26, 1083.Google Scholar
  88. Murphy, C., Cain, W.S. and Hegsted, D.M. (eds) (1989) Nutrition and the Chemical Senses in Aging: Recent Advances and Current Research Needs, Ann. NY Acad. Sci., Vol. 561, New York Academy of Sciences, New York.Google Scholar
  89. Nakamura, T. and Gold, G.H. (1987) A cyclic nucleotide-gated conductance in olfactory cilia. Nature 325, 442.Google Scholar
  90. Norris, M.B., Noble, A.C. and Pangborn, R.M. (1984) Human saliva and taste responses to acids varying In anions, titratable acidity and pH. Physiol Behav. 32, 237.Google Scholar
  91. Novoselov, V.I., Krapivinskaya, L.D. and Fesenko, E.E. (1988) Amino acid binding glycoproteins from the olfactory epithelium of skate. Chem. Senses 13, 267.Google Scholar
  92. Ozeki, M. and Sato, M. (1972) Responses of gustatory cells in the tongue of rat to stimuli representing four taste qualities. Comp. Biochem. Physiol 41 A, 391.Google Scholar
  93. Pace, U., Hamski, E., Salomon, Y. and Lancet, D. (1985) Odorant-sensitive adenylate cyclase may mediate olfactory reception. Nature 316, 255.Google Scholar
  94. Restrepo, D., Miyamoto, T., Bryant, B.P. and Teeter, J.H. (1990) Odor stimuli trigger influx of calcium into olfactory neurons of the channel catfish. Science 249, 1166.Google Scholar
  95. Rhein, L.D. and Cagan, R.H. (1983) Biochemical studies of olfaction: Binding specificity of odorants to a cilia preparation from rainbow trout olfactory rosettes. J. Neurochem. 41, 569.Google Scholar
  96. Rogers, Q.R. and Leung, P.M.B. (1977) The control of food intake: When and how are amino acids involved? in The Chemical Senses and Nutrition (eds M.R. Kare and O. Mailer), Academic Press, New York, pp. 213–49.Google Scholar
  97. Rosenstein, D. and Oster, H. (1988) Differential facial responses to four basic tastes in newborns. Child Dev. 59, 1555.Google Scholar
  98. Rovee, C.K. (1972) Olfactory cross-adaptation and facilitation in human neonates. J. Exper. Child Psychol 13, 368.Google Scholar
  99. Rozin, P. (1976) The selection of foods by rats, humans and other animals, in Advances in the Study of Behavior. Vol. 6 (eds J.S. Rosenblatt, R.A. Hinde, E. Shaw and C. Beer), Academic Press, New York, pp. 21–67.Google Scholar
  100. Rozin, P. (1982) Taste-smell confusions and the duality of the olfactory sense. Percept. & Psychophys. 31, 397.Google Scholar
  101. Schifferstein, H.N.J, and Frijters, J.E.R. (1992) Two-stimulus vs. one-stimulus procedure in the framework of functional measurement: A comparative investigation using quinine HC1/ NaCl mixtures. Chem. Senses 17, 127.Google Scholar
  102. Schiffman, S. (1974) Physicochemical correlates of olfactory quality. Science, 185, 112.Google Scholar
  103. Schiffman, S.S. and Warwick, Z.S. (1988) Flavor enhancement of foods for the elderly can reverse anorexia. Neurobiol. Aging 8, 24.Google Scholar
  104. Schiffman, S.S., Lockhead, E. and Maes, F.W. (1983) Amiloride reduces the taste intensity of Na and Li salts and sweeteners. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 80, 6136.Google Scholar
  105. Schmidt, H.J. and Beauchamp, G.K. (1988) Adult-like preferences and aversions in 3-year-old children. Child Devel. 59, 1136.Google Scholar
  106. Scott, T.R. (1987) Coding in the gustatory system, in Neurobiology of Taste and Smell (eds T.E. Finger and W.L. Silver), John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 355–78.Google Scholar
  107. Scott, J.W. and Harrison, T.A. (1987) The olfactory bulb: Anatomy and physiology, in Neurobiology of Taste and Smell (eds T.E. Finger and W.L. Silver), John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 151–78.Google Scholar
  108. Shafar, J. and Glasg, M.D. (1965) Dysgeusia in the elderly. Lancet 1, 83.Google Scholar
  109. Shallenberger, R.S. and Acree, T.E. (1967) Molecular theory of sweet taste. Nature 216, 480.Google Scholar
  110. Sklar, P.B., Anholt, R.R.H. and Snyder, S.H. (1986) The odorant-sensitive adenylate cyclase of olfactory receptor cells. J. Biol. Chem. 261, 15–38.Google Scholar
  111. Spielman, A.I., Mody, I., Brand, J.G., Whitney, G., MacDonald, J.F. and Salter, M.W. (1989) A method for isolating and patch clamping single mammalian taste receptor cells. Brain Res. 503. 326.Google Scholar
  112. Spielman, A.I., Huque, T., Whitney, G. and Brand, J.G. (1992) The diversity of bitter taste signal transduction mechanisms, in Sensory Transduction (eds D. Corey and S.J. Roper), Rockefeller University Press, New York, pp. 307–24.Google Scholar
  113. Steiner, J.E. (1977) Facial expressions of the neonate infant indicating the hedonics of food-related chemical stimuli, in Taste and Development: The Genesis of Sweet Preference (ed. J.M. Weiffenbach), US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, pp. 173–89.Google Scholar
  114. Steiner, J.E. (1987) What the neonate can tell us about umami, in Umami: A Basic Taste, (eds Y. Kawamura and M.R. Kare), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 97–123.Google Scholar
  115. Stevens, J.C., Cain, W.S., Memarque, A and Ruthraff, A.M. (1991) On the discrimination of missing ingredients: Aging and salt flavor. Appetite 10, 129Google Scholar
  116. Strieker, E.M. and Verbalis, J.G. (1988) Hormones and behavior. The biology of thirst and sodium appetite. Am. Sci., 76, 261.Google Scholar
  117. Striem, B.J., Pace, U., Zehavi, U., Nairn, M. and Lancet, D. (1989) Sweet tastants stimulate adenylate cyclase coupled to GTP-binding protein in rat tongue membranes. Biochem. J. 15, 121.Google Scholar
  118. Sugimoto, K. and Teeter, J.H. (1991) Stimulus-induced currents in isolated receptor cells of the larval tiger salamander. Chem. Senses 16, 109.Google Scholar
  119. Tatzer, E., Schubert, M.T., Timischi, W. and Simbruner, G. (1985) Discrimination of taste and preference for sweet in premature babies. Early Hum. Dev. 12, 23.Google Scholar
  120. Teeter, J.H. and Cagan, R.H. (1990) Mechanisms of taste transduction, in Neural Mechanisms in Taste (ed. R.H. Cagan), CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 1–20.Google Scholar
  121. Tonosaki, K. and Funakoshi, M. (1988) Cyclic nucleotides may mediate taste transduction. Nature 331, 354.Google Scholar
  122. Tordoff, M.G., Ulrich, P.M. and Schulkin, J. (1990) Calcium deprivation increases salt intake. Am. J. Physiol. 259, R411.Google Scholar
  123. Vazquez, M., Pearson, P.B. and Beauchamp, G.K. (1982) Flavor preferences in malnourished Mexican infants. Physiol. Behav. 28, 513.Google Scholar
  124. Walters, D.E., Orthoefer, F.T. and DuBois, G.E. (1991) Sweeteners: Discovery, Molecular Design and Chemoreception, American Chemical Society, Washington DC.Google Scholar
  125. Whitney, G., Harder, D.B., Gannon, K.S. and Maggio, J.C. (1991) Congenic lines differing in ability to taste sucrose octaacetate, in Chemical Senses. Vol. 3. Genetics of Perception and Communication, (eds. C.J. Wysocki and M.R. Kare), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 243–62.Google Scholar
  126. Wysocki, C.J. and Gilbert, A.N. (1989) The National Geographic smell survey: Effects of age are heterogenous, in Nutrition and the Chemical Senses in Aging: Recent Advances and Current research Needs (eds. C. Murphy, W.S. Cain and D.M. Hegsted), Ann. NY Acad. Sci., Vol. 561, New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp. 12–28.Google Scholar
  127. Yamaguchi, S. (1987) Fundamental properties of umami in human taste sensation, in Umami: A Basic Taste (eds Y. Kawamura and M.R. Kare), Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 37–41.Google Scholar
  128. Yamaguchi, S. (1991) Basic properties of umami and effects on humans. Physiol. Behav. 49, 833.Google Scholar
  129. Ye, Q., Heck, G.L. and DeSimone, J.A. (1991) The anion paradox in sodium taste reception: Resolution by voltage-clamp studies. Science 254, 724.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1994

Authors and Affiliations

  • G. K. Beauchamp
  • J. G. Brand

There are no affiliations available

Personalised recommendations