Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Air Pollution and Pregnancy Outcomes

  • Chapter
Air Pollution and Health Effects

Part of the book series: Molecular and Integrative Toxicology ((MOLECUL))

Abstract

Children born with low birth weight, preterm, or with fetal growth restriction may suffer from significant short and long term morbidity and mortality, making adverse pregnancy outcomes a major public health concern with significant health, social, and economic consequences for families, communities, and the nation. Despite aggressive public heath campaigns, racial and geographic disparities in pregnancy outcomes persist. Disproportionate exposure to environmental hazards may partially account for such disparities. In this chapter, we synthesize the existing literature connecting air pollution exposures and pregnancy outcomes. We begin by providing readers with background on adverse pregnancy outcomes, including their consequences and documented disparities. Next, we summarize existing research on air pollution and pregnancy outcomes with a systematic literature review, describing the state of knowledge regarding associations between each outcome and key pollutants. While the scientific literature clearly points to a detrimental association between maternal air pollution exposure and pregnancy outcomes, the literature does not yet provide a consensus understanding of the details of this association. Thus, we describe key methodological barriers and inconsistencies that make interpretation across studies challenging, noting why these issues arise, how they impact results, and how they may be addressed. Acknowledging these challenges and the need for additional research, this chapter highlights clear evidence of a negative association between air pollution and pregnancy outcomes. Future work addressing methodological issues and, perhaps most importantly, identifying causal pathways, is critical to establishing appropriate regulatory policy and protecting maternal and infant health.

The development of this chapter was supported by a grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (RD-83329301).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Aguilera I, Guxens M, Garcia-Esteban R, Corbella T, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Foradada CM et al (2009) Association between GIS-based exposure to urban air pollution during pregnancy and birth weight in the INMA Sabadell Cohort. Environ Health Perspect 117(8):1322–1327

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • American Lung Association (2011) State of the air

    Google Scholar 

  • Avchen RN, Scott KG, Mason CA (2001) Birth weight and school-age disabilities: a population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 154(10):895–901

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Backes CH, Nelin T, Gorr MW, Wold LE (2013) Early life exposure to air pollution: how bad is it? Toxicol Lett 216(1):47–53

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ballester F, Estarlich M, Iniguez C, Llop S, Ramon R, Esplugues A et al (2010) Air pollution exposure during pregnancy and reduced birth size: a prospective birth cohort study in Valencia, Spain. Environ Health 9:6

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barker DJ, Martyn CN, Osmond C, Hales CN, Fall CH (1993) Growth in utero and serum cholesterol concentrations in adult life. BMJ 307(6918):1524–1527

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett AG, Plonka K, Seow WK, Wilson LA, Hansen C (2011) Increased traffic exposure and negative birth outcomes: a prospective cohort in Australia. Environ Health 10:26

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Basu R, Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Saulnier L, Schoendorf KC (2004) Comparing exposure metrics in the relationship between PM2.5 and birth weight in California. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 14(5):391–396

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Behrman RE, Butler AS (2007) Preterm birth – causes, consequences and prevention. National Academies Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Bell ML, Ebisu K, Belanger K (2007) Ambient air pollution and low birth weight in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Environ Health Perspect 115(7):1118–1124

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell ML, Belanger K, Ebisu K, Gent JF, Lee HJ, Koutrakis P et al (2010) Prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter and birth weight: variations by particulate constituents and sources. Epidemiology 21(6):884–891

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bell ML, Belanger K, Ebisu K, Gent JF, Leaderer BP (2012) Relationship between birth weight and exposure to airborne fine particulate potassium and titanium during gestation. Environ Res 117:83–89

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berrocal VJ, Gelfand AE, Holland DM, Burke J, Miranda ML (2011) On the use of a PM(2.5) exposure simulator to explain birthweight. Environmetrics 22(4):553–571

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bobak M (2000) Outdoor air pollution, low birth weight, and prematurity. Environ Health Perspect 108(2):173–176

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bobak M, Leon DA (1999) Pregnancy outcomes and outdoor air pollution: an ecological study in districts of the Czech Republic 1986–8. Occup Environ Med 56(8):539–543

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boothe VL, Shendell DG (2008) Potential health effects associated with residential proximity to freeways and primary roads: review of scientific literature, 1999–2006. J Environ Health 70(8):33–36

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bosetti C, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Gallus S, Cipriani S, La VC, Parazzini F (2010) Ambient particulate matter and preterm birth or birth weight: a review of the literature. Arch Toxicol 84(6):447–460

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brauer M, Lencar C, Tamburic L, Koehoorn M, Demers P, Karr C (2008) A cohort study of traffic-related air pollution impacts on birth outcomes. Environ Health Perspect 116(5):680–686

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown P (1995) Race, class, and environmental health: a review and systematization of the literature. Environ Res 69(1):15–30

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chang HH, Reich BJ, Miranda ML (2012) Time-to-event analysis of fine particle air pollution and preterm birth: results from North Carolina, 2001–2005. Am J Epidemiol 175(2):91–98

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi H, Perera FP (2012) Sources of greater fetal vulnerability to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons among African Americans. J Epidemiol Community Health 66(2):121–126

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi H, Jedrychowski W, Spengler J, Camann DE, Whyatt RM, Rauh V et al (2006) International studies of prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fetal growth. Environ Health Perspect 114(11):1744–1750

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi H, Rauh V, Garfinkel R, Tu Y, Perera FP (2008) Prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and risk of intrauterine growth restriction. Environ Health Perspect 116(5):658–665

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Choi H, Wang L, Lin X, Spengler JD, Perera FP (2012) Fetal window of vulnerability to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on proportional intrauterine growth restriction. PLoS One 7(4):e35464

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crofts BJ, King R, Johnson A (1998) The contribution of low birth weight to severe vision loss in a geographically defined population. Br J Ophthalmol 82(1):9–13

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Currie J, Neidell M, Schmieder JF (2009) Air pollution and infant health: lessons from New Jersey. J Health Econ 28(3):688–703

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dadvand P, Parker J, Bell ML, Bonzini M, Brauer M, Darrow LA et al (2013) Maternal exposure to particulate air pollution and term birth weight: a multi-country evaluation of effect and heterogeneity. Environ Health Perspect 121(3):267–373

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Darrow LA, Klein M, Flanders WD, Waller LA, Correa A, Marcus M et al (2009) Ambient air pollution and preterm birth: a time-series analysis. Epidemiology 20(5):689–698

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dejmek J, Solansky I, Benes I, Lenicek J, Sram RJ (2000) The impact of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fine particles on pregnancy outcome. Environ Health Perspect 108(12):1159–1164

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dolk H, Pattenden S, Vrijheid M, Thakrar B, Armstrong B (2000) Perinatal and infant mortality and low birth weight among residents near cokeworks in Great Britain. Arch Environ Health 55(1):26–30

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doussard-Roosevelt JA, Porges SW, Scanlon JW, Alemi B, Scanlon KB (1997) Vagal regulation of heart rate in the prediction of developmental outcome for very low birth weight preterm infants. Child Dev 68(2):173–186

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dugandzic R, Dodds L, Stieb D, Smith-Doiron M (2006) The association between low level exposures to ambient air pollution and term low birth weight: a retrospective cohort study. Environ Health 5:3

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ebisu K, Bell ML (2012) Airborne PM2.5 chemical components and low birth weight in the northeastern and mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. Environ Health Perspect 120(12):1746–1752

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Estarlich M, Ballester F, Aguilera I, Fernandez-Somoano A, Lertxundi A, Llop S et al (2011) Residential exposure to outdoor air pollution during pregnancy and anthropometric measures at birth in a multicenter cohort in Spain. Environ Health Perspect 119(9):1333–1338

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Geer LA, Weedon J, Bell ML (2012) Ambient air pollution and term birth weight in Texas from 1998 to 2004. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 62(11):1285–1295

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gehring U, van Eijsden M, Dijkema MB, van der Wal MF, Fischer P, Brunekreef B (2011a) Traffic-related air pollution and pregnancy outcomes in the Dutch ABCD birth cohort study. Occup Environ Med 68(1):36–43

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gehring U, Wijga AH, Fischer P, de Jongste JC, Kerkhof M, Koppelman GH et al (2011b) Traffic-related air pollution, preterm birth and term birth weight in the PIAMA birth cohort study. Environ Res 111(1):125–135

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Genereux M, Auger N, Goneau M, Daniel M (2008) Neighbourhood socioeconomic status, maternal education and adverse birth outcomes among mothers living near highways. J Epidemiol Community Health 62(8):695–700

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ghosh JK, Wilhelm M, Su J, Goldberg D, Cockburn M, Jerrett M et al (2012) Assessing the influence of traffic-related air pollution on risk of term low birth weight on the basis of land-use-based regression models and measures of air toxics. Am J Epidemiol 175(12):1262–1274

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilliland F, Avol E, Kinney P, Jerrett M, Dvonch T, Lurmann F et al (2005) Air pollution exposure assessment for epidemiologic studies of pregnant women and children: lessons learned from the Centers for Children’s Environmental Health and Disease Prevention Research. Environ Health Perspect 113(10):1447–1454

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Glinianaia SV, Rankin J, Bell R, Pless-Mulloli T, Howel D (2004) Particulate air pollution and fetal health: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. Epidemiology 15(1):36–45

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gouveia N, Bremner SA, Novaes HM (2004) Association between ambient air pollution and birth weight in Sao Paulo, Brazil. J Epidemiol Community Health 58(1):11–17

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray SC, Edwards SE, Miranda ML (2010) Assessing exposure metrics for PM and birth weight models. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 20(5):469–477

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray SC, Gelfand AE, Miranda ML (2011) Hierarchical spatial modeling of uncertainty in air pollution and birth weight study. Stat Med 30(17):2187–2198

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ha EH, Hong YC, Lee BE, Woo BH, Schwartz J, Christiani DC (2001) Is air pollution a risk factor for low birth weight in Seoul? Epidemiology 12(6):643–648

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hack M, Klein NK, Taylor HG (1995) Long-term developmental outcomes of low birth weight infants. Future Child 5(1):176–196

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton BE, Martin JA, Ventura SJ (2012) Births: preliminary data for 2011. Natl Vital Stat Rep 61(5):1–19

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen C, Neller A, Williams G, Simpson R (2006) Maternal exposure to low levels of ambient air pollution and preterm birth in Brisbane, Australia. BJOG 113(8):935–941

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen C, Neller A, Williams G, Simpson R (2007) Low levels of ambient air pollution during pregnancy and fetal growth among term neonates in Brisbane, Australia. Environ Res 103(3):383–389

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heidenreich PA, Trogdon JG, Khavjou OA, Butler J, Dracup K, Ezekowitz MD et al (2011) Forecasting the future of cardiovascular disease in the United States: a policy statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 123(8):933–944

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hitosugi M, Motozawa Y, Kawato H, Nagai T, Tokudome S (2009) Experimental analysis of the relationship between simulated low-velocity rear-end collisions and fetal outcomes of pregnant rats. Med Sci Law 49(3):213–217

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoggatt KJ, Greenland S, Ritz BR (2009) Adjustment for response bias via two-phase analysis: an application. Epidemiology 20(6):872–879

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huynh M, Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Schoendorf KC (2006) Relationships between air pollution and preterm birth in California. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 20(6):454–461

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iniguez C, Ballester F, Estarlich M, Esplugues A, Murcia M, Llop S et al (2012) Prenatal exposure to traffic-related air pollution and fetal growth in a cohort of pregnant women. Occup Environ Med 69(10):736–744

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jalaludin B, Mannes T, Morgan G, Lincoln D, Sheppeard V, Corbett S (2007) Impact of ambient air pollution on gestational age is modified by season in Sydney, Australia. Environ Health 6:16

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jedrychowski W, Bendkowska I, Flak E, Penar A, Jacek R, Kaim I et al (2004) Estimated risk for altered fetal growth resulting from exposure to fine particles during pregnancy: an epidemiologic prospective cohort study in Poland. Environ Health Perspect 112(14):1398–1402

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jedrychowski W, Perera F, Mrozek-Budzyn D, Mroz E, Flak E, Spengler JD et al (2009) Gender differences in fetal growth of newborns exposed prenatally to airborne fine particulate matter. Environ Res 109(4):447–456

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kashima S, Naruse H, Yorifuji T, Ohki S, Murakoshi T, Takao S et al (2011) Residential proximity to heavy traffic and birth weight in Shizuoka, Japan. Environ Res 111(3):377–387

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim OJ, Ha EH, Kim BM, Seo JH, Park HS, Jung WJ et al (2007) PM10 and pregnancy outcomes: a hospital-based cohort study of pregnant women in Seoul. J Occup Environ Med 49(12):1394–1402

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kloog I, Melly SJ, Ridgway WL, Coull BA, Schwartz J (2012) Using new satellite based exposure methods to study the association between pregnancy PM(2). (5) exposure, premature birth and birth weight in Massachusetts. Environ Health 11:40

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee BE, Ha EH, Park HS, Kim YJ, Hong YC, Kim H et al (2003) Exposure to air pollution during different gestational phases contributes to risks of low birth weight. Hum Reprod 18(3):638–643

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee SJ, Hajat S, Steer PJ, Filippi V (2008) A time-series analysis of any short-term effects of meteorological and air pollution factors on preterm births in London, UK. Environ Res 106(2):185–194

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee PC, Roberts JM, Catov JM, Talbott EO, Ritz B (2012) First trimester exposure to ambient air pollution, pregnancy complications and adverse birth outcomes in Allegheny County, PA. Matern Child Health J 17(3):545–555

    Google Scholar 

  • Lemons JA, Bauer CR, Oh W, Korones SB, Papile LA, Stoll BJ et al (2001) Very low birth weight outcomes of the National Institute of Child health and human development neonatal research network, January 1995 through December 1996. NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Pediatrics 107(1):E1

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lepeule J, Caini F, Bottagisi S, Galineau J, Hulin A, Marquis N et al (2010) Maternal exposure to nitrogen dioxide during pregnancy and offspring birth weight: comparison of two exposure models. Environ Health Perspect 118(10):1483–1489

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lewtas J (2007) Air pollution combustion emissions: characterization of causative agents and mechanisms associated with cancer, reproductive, and cardiovascular effects. Mutat Res 636(1–3):95–133

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin CM, Li CY, Yang GY, Mao IF (2004a) Association between maternal exposure to elevated ambient sulfur dioxide during pregnancy and term low birth weight. Environ Res 96(1):41–50

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin CM, Li CY, Mao IF (2004b) Increased risks of term low-birth-weight infants in a petrochemical industrial city with high air pollution levels. Arch Environ Health 59(12):663–668

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lipkind HS, Slopen ME, Pfeiffer MR, McVeigh KH (2012) School-age outcomes of late preterm infants in New York City. Am J Obstet Gynecol 206(3):222–226

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Krewski D, Shi Y, Chen Y, Burnett RT (2003) Association between gaseous ambient air pollutants and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Vancouver, Canada. Environ Health Perspect 111(14):1773–1778

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu S, Krewski D, Shi Y, Chen Y, Burnett RT (2007) Association between maternal exposure to ambient air pollutants during pregnancy and fetal growth restriction. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 17(5):426–432

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Llop S, Ballester F, Estarlich M, Esplugues A, Rebagliato M, Iniguez C (2010) Preterm birth and exposure to air pollutants during pregnancy. Environ Res 110(8):778–785

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez R (2002) Segregation and black/white differences in exposure to air toxics in 1990. Environ Health Perspect 110(Suppl 2):289–295

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lorenz JM, Wooliever DE, Jetton JR, Paneth N (1998) A quantitative review of mortality and developmental disability in extremely premature newborns. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 152(5):425–435

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maisonet M, Bush TJ, Correa A, Jaakkola JJ (2001) Relation between ambient air pollution and low birth weight in the Northeastern United States. Environ Health Perspect 109(Suppl 3):351–356

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maisonet M, Correa A, Misra D, Jaakkola JJ (2004) A review of the literature on the effects of ambient air pollution on fetal growth. Environ Res 95(1):106–115

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malmqvist E, Rignell-Hydbom A, Tinnerberg H, Bjork J, Stroh E, Jakobsson K et al (2011) Maternal exposure to air pollution and birth outcomes. Environ Health Perspect 119(4):553–558

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mannes T, Jalaludin B, Morgan G, Lincoln D, Sheppeard V, Corbett S (2005) Impact of ambient air pollution on birth weight in Sydney, Australia. Occup Environ Med 62(8):524–530

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maroziene L, Grazuleviciene R (2002) Maternal exposure to low-level air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: a population-based study. Environ Health 1(1):6

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masters ET, Jedrychowski W, Schleicher RL, Tsai WY, Tu YH, Camann D et al (2007) Relation between prenatal lipid-soluble micronutrient status, environmental pollutant exposure, and birth outcomes. Am J Clin Nutr 86(4):1139–1145

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Medeiros A, Gouveia N (2005) Relationship between low birthweight and air pollution in the city of Sao Paulo, Brazil. Rev Saude Publica 39(6):965–972

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ment LR, Vohr B, Allan W, Westerveld M, Katz KH, Schneider KC et al (1999) The etiology and outcome of cerebral ventriculomegaly at term in very low birth weight preterm infants. Pediatrics 104(2 Pt 1):243–248

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miranda ML, Edwards SE, Chang HH, Auten RL (2013) Proximity to roadways and pregnancy outcomes. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 23(1):32–38

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mohorovic L (2004) First two months of pregnancy–critical time for preterm delivery and low birthweight caused by adverse effects of coal combustion toxics. Early Hum Dev 80(2):115–123

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Morello-Frosch R, Jesdale BM, Sadd JL, Pastor M (2010) Ambient air pollution exposure and full-term birth weight in California. Environ Health 9:44

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nascimento LF, Moreira DA (2009) Are environmental pollutants risk factors for low birth weight? Cad Saude Publica 25(8):1791–1796

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olsson D, Ekstrom M, Forsberg B (2012) Temporal variation in air pollution concentrations and preterm birth-a population based epidemiological study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 9(1):272–285

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osmond C, Barker DJ, Winter PD, Fall CH, Simmonds SJ (1993) Early growth and death from cardiovascular disease in women. BMJ 307(6918):1519–1524

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Padula AM, Mortimer K, Hubbard A, Lurmann F, Jerrett M, Tager IB (2012) Exposure to traffic-related air pollution during pregnancy and term low birth weight: estimation of causal associations in a semiparametric model. Am J Epidemiol 176(9):815–824

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parker JD, Woodruff TJ (2008) Influences of study design and location on the relationship between particulate matter air pollution and birthweight. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 22(3):214–227

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parker JD, Woodruff TJ, Basu R, Schoendorf KC (2005) Air pollution and birth weight among term infants in California. Pediatrics 115(1):121–128

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Parker JD, Rich DQ, Glinianaia SV, Leem JH, Wartenberg D, Bell ML et al (2011) The international collaboration on air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: initial results. Environ Health Perspect 119(7):1023–1028

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pereira G, Nassar N, Cook A, Bower C (2011) Traffic emissions are associated with reduced fetal growth in areas of Perth, Western Australia: an application of the AusRoads dispersion model. Aust N Z J Public Health 35(5):451–458

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perera FP, Rauh V, Tsai WY, Kinney P, Camann D, Barr D et al (2003) Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environ Health Perspect 111(2):201–205

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perera FP, Rauh V, Whyatt RM, Tsai WY, Bernert JT, Tu YH et al (2004) Molecular evidence of an interaction between prenatal environmental exposures and birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environ Health Perspect 112(5):626–630

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petrou S (2005) The economic consequences of preterm birth during the first 10 years of life. BJOG 112(Suppl 1):10–15

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ponce NA, Hoggatt KJ, Wilhelm M, Ritz B (2005) Preterm birth: the interaction of traffic-related air pollution with economic hardship in Los Angeles neighborhoods. Am J Epidemiol 162(2):140–148

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rahmalia A, Giorgis-Allemand L, Lepeule J, Philippat C, Galineau J, Hulin A et al (2012) Pregnancy exposure to atmospheric pollutants and placental weight: an approach relying on a dispersion model. Environ Int 48:47–55

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Resnick MB, Gueorguieva RV, Carter RL, Ariet M, Sun Y, Roth J et al (1999) The impact of low birth weight, perinatal conditions, and sociodemographic factors on educational outcome in kindergarten. Pediatrics 104(6):e74

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rich DQ, Demissie K, Lu SE, Kamat L, Wartenberg D, Rhoads GG (2009) Ambient air pollutant concentrations during pregnancy and the risk of fetal growth restriction. J Epidemiol Community Health 63(6):488–496

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritz B, Wilhelm M (2008) Ambient air pollution and adverse birth outcomes: methodologic issues in an emerging field. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 102(2):182–190

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritz B, Yu F, Chapa G, Fruin S (2000) Effect of air pollution on preterm birth among children born in Southern California between 1989 and 1993. Epidemiology 11(5):502–511

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ritz B, Wilhelm M, Hoggatt KJ, Ghosh JK (2007) Ambient air pollution and preterm birth in the environment and pregnancy outcomes study at the University of California, Los Angeles. Am J Epidemiol 166(9):1045–1052

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robb JA, Sibley MH, Pelham WE, Foster EM, Molina BSG, Gnagy EM et al (2011) The estimated annual cost of ADHD to the US education system. School Ment Health 3:169–177

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rocha E, Silva IR, Lichtenfels AJ, Amador Pereira LA, Saldiva PH (2008) Effects of ambient levels of air pollution generated by traffic on birth and placental weights in mice. Fertil Steril 90(5):1921–1924

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogers JF, Dunlop AL (2006) Air pollution and very low birth weight infants: a target population? Pediatrics 118(1):156–164

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers JF, Thompson SJ, Addy CL, McKeown RE, Cowen DJ, Decoufle P (2000) Association of very low birth weight with exposures to environmental sulfur dioxide and total suspended particulates. Am J Epidemiol 151(6):602–613

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ross G, Lipper EG, Auld PA (1990) Social competence and behavior problems in premature children at school age. Pediatrics 86(3):391–397

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rossner P Jr, Tabashidze N, Dostal M, Novakova Z, Chvatalova I, Spatova M et al (2011) Genetic, biochemical, and environmental factors associated with pregnancy outcomes in newborns from the Czech Republic. Environ Health Perspect 119(2):265–271

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rudra CB, Williams MA, Sheppard L, Koenig JQ, Schiff MA (2011) Ambient carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter in relation to preeclampsia and preterm delivery in western Washington State. Environ Health Perspect 119(6):886–892

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sagiv SK, Mendola P, Loomis D, Herring AH, Neas LM, Savitz DA et al (2005) A time-series analysis of air pollution and preterm birth in Pennsylvania, 1997–2001. Environ Health Perspect 113(5):602–606

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saigal S, Hoult LA, Streiner DL, Stoskopf BL, Rosenbaum PL (2000) School difficulties at adolescence in a regional cohort of children who were extremely low birth weight. Pediatrics 105(2):325–331

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salam MT (2008) Air pollution and birth weight in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Environ Health Perspect 116(3):A106–A107

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salam MT, Millstein J, Li YF, Lurmann FW, Margolis HG, Gilliland FD (2005) Birth outcomes and prenatal exposure to ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter: results from the Children’s Health Study. Environ Health Perspect 113(11):1638–1644

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satrell E, Roksund O, Thorsen E, Halvorsen T (2012) Pulmonary gas transfer in children and adolescents born extremely preterm. Eur Respir J 22

    Google Scholar 

  • Seo JH, Leem JH, Ha EH, Kim OJ, Kim BM, Lee JY et al (2010) Population-attributable risk of low birthweight related to PM10 pollution in seven Korean cities. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 24(2):140–148

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah PS, Balkhair T (2011) Air pollution and birth outcomes: a systematic review. Environ Int 37(2):498–516

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slama R, Morgenstern V, Cyrys J, Zutavern A, Herbarth O, Wichmann HE et al (2007) Traffic-related atmospheric pollutants levels during pregnancy and offspring’s term birth weight: a study relying on a land-use regression exposure model. Environ Health Perspect 115(9):1283–1292

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slama R, Thiebaugeorges O, Goua V, Aussel L, Sacco P, Bohet A et al (2009) Maternal personal exposure to airborne benzene and intrauterine growth. Environ Health Perspect 117(8):1313–1321

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slama R, Grabsch C, Lepeule J, Siroux V, Cyrys J, Sausenthaler S et al (2010) Maternal fine particulate matter exposure, polymorphism in xenobiotic-metabolizing genes and offspring birth weight. Reprod Toxicol 30(4):600–612

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sram RJ, Binkova B, Dejmek J, Bobak M (2005) Ambient air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: a review of the literature. Environ Health Perspect 113(4):375–382

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson RC, McCabe CJ, Pharoah PO, Cooke RW (1996) Cost of care for a geographically determined population of low birthweight infants to age 8–9 years. I. Children without disability. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 74(2):F114–F117

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stretesky PB (2003) The distribution of air lead levels across U.S. counties: implications for the production of racial inequality. Sociol Spectr 23(1):91–118

    Google Scholar 

  • Stretesky PB, Lynch M (1999) Environmental justice and the predictions of distance to accidental chemical releases in Hillsborough County, Florida. Soc Sci Q 97(1 Suppl):289–310

    Google Scholar 

  • Suh YJ, Kim BM, Park BH, Park H, Kim YJ, Kim H et al (2007) Cytochrome P450IA1 polymorphisms along with PM(10) exposure contribute to the risk of birth weight reduction. Reprod Toxicol 24(3–4):281–288

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suh YJ, Ha EH, Park H, Kim YJ, Kim H, Hong YC (2008) GSTM1 polymorphism along with PM10 exposure contributes to the risk of preterm delivery. Mutat Res 656(1–2):62–67

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suh YJ, Kim H, Seo JH, Park H, Kim YJ, Hong YC et al (2009) Different effects of PM10 exposure on preterm birth by gestational period estimated from time-dependent survival analyses. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 82(5):613–621

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Swamy GK, Ostbye T, Skjaerven R (2008) Association of preterm birth with long-term survival, reproduction, and next-generation preterm birth. JAMA 299(12):1429–1436

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tang D, Li TY, Liu JJ, Chen YH, Qu L, Perera F (2006) PAH-DNA adducts in cord blood and fetal and child development in a Chinese cohort. Environ Health Perspect 114(8):1297–1300

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urbaniec N, Namyslowski G, Morawski K, Urbaniec P, Turecka L, Bazowska G (2004) Effects of intrauterine hypotrophy and perinatal hypoxia on cochlear function evaluated by click evoked otoacoustic emissions (TEOAE). Otolaryngol Pol 58(2):365–372

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • U.S.Census Bureau (2010) 2010 Census summary file 1. Ref type: Online source

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S.Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013) National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Stats. US Birth Data 2010. 24 May 2013. Ref type: Online source

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (2011) Our nation’s air, status and trends through 2010

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (2013) Air quality system site and monitor records. 24 May 2013

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Hooven EH, Jaddoe VW, de Kluizenaar Y, Hofman A, Mackenbach JP, Steegers EA et al (2009) Residential traffic exposure and pregnancy-related outcomes: a prospective birth cohort study. Environ Health 8:59

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van den Hooven EH, Pierik FH, de Kluizenaar Y, Willemsen SP, Hofman A, van Ratingen SW et al (2012) Air pollution exposure during pregnancy, ultrasound measures of fetal growth, and adverse birth outcomes: a prospective cohort study. Environ Health Perspect 120(1):150–156

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veras MM, Damaceno-Rodrigues NR, Caldini EG, Maciel Ribeiro AA, Mayhew TM, Saldiva PH et al (2008) Particulate urban air pollution affects the functional morphology of mouse placenta. Biol Reprod 79(3):578–584

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang X, Ding H, Ryan L, Xu X (1997) Association between air pollution and low birth weight: a community-based study. Environ Health Perspect 105(5):514–520

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang ML, Dorer DJ, Fleming MP, Catlin EA (2004) Clinical outcomes of near-term infants. Pediatrics 114(2):372–376

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang YC, McPherson K, Marsh T, Gortmaker SL, Brown M (2011) Health and economic burden of the projected obesity trends in the USA and the UK. Lancet 378(9793):815–825

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warren J, Fuentes M, Herring A, Langlois P (2012) Spatial-temporal modeling of the association between air pollution exposure and preterm birth: identifying critical windows of exposure. Biometrics 68(4):1157–1167

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiland K, Neidell M, Rauh V, Perera F (2011) Cost of developmental delay from prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. J Health Care Poor Underserved 22(1):320–329

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss JL, Malone FD, Emig D, Ball RH, Nyberg DA, Comstock CH et al (2004) Obesity, obstetric complications and cesarean delivery rate–a population-based screening study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 190(4):1091–1097

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm M, Ritz B (2003) Residential proximity to traffic and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, 1994–1996. Environ Health Perspect 111(2):207–216

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm M, Ritz B (2005) Local variations in CO and particulate air pollution and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, USA. Environ Health Perspect 113(9):1212–1221

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm M, Ghosh JK, Su J, Cockburn M, Jerrett M, Ritz B (2011) Traffic-related air toxics and preterm birth: a population-based case-control study in Los Angeles County, California. Environ Health 10:89

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilhelm M, Ghosh JK, Su J, Cockburn M, Jerrett M, Ritz B (2012) Traffic-related air toxics and term low birth weight in Los Angeles County, California. Environ Health Perspect 120(1):132–138

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams BL, Pennock-Roman M, Suen HK, Magsumbol MS, Ozdenerol E (2007) Assessing the impact of the local environment on birth outcomes: a case for HLM. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 17(5):445–457

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wolff MS, Britton JA, Wilson VP (2003) Environmental risk factors for breast cancer among African-American women. Cancer 97(1 Suppl):289–310

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Darrow LA, Slama R, Bell ML, Choi H et al (2009) Methodological issues in studies of air pollution and reproductive health. Environ Res 109(3):311–320

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Ren C, Delfino RJ, Chung J, Wilhelm M, Ritz B (2009) Association between local traffic-generated air pollution and preeclampsia and preterm delivery in the south coast air basin of California. Environ Health Perspect 117(11):1773–1779

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wu J, Wilhelm M, Chung J, Ritz B (2011) Comparing exposure assessment methods for traffic-related air pollution in an adverse pregnancy outcome study. Environ Res 111(5):685–692

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Xu X, Sharma RK, Talbott EO, Zborowski JV, Rager J, Arena VC et al (2011) PM10 air pollution exposure during pregnancy and term low birth weight in Allegheny County, PA, 1994–2000. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 84(3):251–257

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang CY, Chang CC, Chuang HY, Ho CK, Wu TN, Tsai SS (2003a) Evidence for increased risks of preterm delivery in a population residing near a freeway in Taiwan. Arch Environ Health 58(10):649–654

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang CY, Tseng YT, Chang CC (2003b) Effects of air pollution on birth weight among children born between 1995 and 1997 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. J Toxicol Environ Health A 66(9):807–816

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yip FY, Pearcy JN, Garbe PL, Truman BI (2011) Unhealthy air quality – United States, 2006–2009. MMWR Surveill Summ 60(Suppl):28–32

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yorifuji T, Naruse H, Kashima S, Murakoshi T, Tsuda T, Doi H et al (2012) Residential proximity to major roads and placenta/birth weight ratio. Sci Total Environ 414:98–102

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zeka A, Melly SJ, Schwartz J (2008) The effects of socioeconomic status and indices of physical environment on reduced birth weight and preterm births in Eastern Massachusetts. Environ Health 7:60

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang P, Zhang X, Brown J, Vistisen D, Sicree R, Shaw J et al (2010) Global healthcare expenditure on diabetes for 2010 and 2030. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 87(3):293–301

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zhao Q, Liang Z, Tao S, Zhu J, Du Y (2011) Effects of air pollution on neonatal prematurity in Guangzhou of China: a time-series study. Environ Health 10:2

    PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Natural Resources and Environment, University of Michigan, 440 Church Street, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA

    Sharon Edwards MStat, Pamela Maxson Ph.D., Nicole Sandberg MURP & Marie Lynn Miranda Ph.D.

  2. Department of Pediatrics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Marie Lynn Miranda Ph.D.

Authors
  1. Sharon Edwards MStat
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Pamela Maxson Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nicole Sandberg MURP
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Marie Lynn Miranda Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marie Lynn Miranda Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Extramural Research and Training, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA

    Srikanth S. Nadadur

  2. Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA

    John W. Hollingsworth

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer-Verlag London

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Edwards, S., Maxson, P., Sandberg, N., Miranda, M.L. (2015). Air Pollution and Pregnancy Outcomes. In: Nadadur, S., Hollingsworth, J. (eds) Air Pollution and Health Effects. Molecular and Integrative Toxicology. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6669-6_3

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation