Abstract
Currently ‘asteroid families’ are considered to be one of the most basic concepts in planetary sciences, relating to planetary formation, impact evolution and spacecraft exploration. And this trend will be even more important in the near future. The asteroid families were first discovered in 1918 by Hirayama Kiyotsugu, an astronomer at the Tokyo Imperial University, and this was one of the earliest internationally-recognized scientific achievements by a Japanese scientist following the Meiji Restoration of 1868. Since then, research on the precise orbital elements proving the existence of asteroid families, and on their photometric and spectral characteristics, has continued through to the present day.
This paper overviews the lifetime and scientific career of Hirayama. We first mention his motivation and clues that led him to the discovery of asteroid families and then discuss the ideas he had in mind about their formation. In our paper we also introduce his other research activities, such as latitude observations, analysis of latitude variation, geodetic measurements of the Japan–Russia border on Sakhalin island after the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905, overseas solar eclipse expeditions, the explanation of the Kirkwood gaps and the resisting medium in the Solar System, motion theories of Hilda and Hecuba asteroids, light-curve interpretation of a certain type of variable stars, and surveys of archival astronomical records in China and Korea, as well as in Japan.
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Notes
- 1.
Hirayama (1933b) remembers that he first met Dirk Brouwer in 1932 at the 4th IAU Meeting, and that he also met W.W. Campbell again at this meeting (Hirayama 1933a). When they first met, around 1916, Campbell told him about the abnormal variable star SS Cygni (Hirayama 1917b). This star had a strong impact on him and subsequently motivated him to launch research on variable stars (Hirayama 1933b).
- 2.
Although T. Nakamura detailed the emergence of astrophysics in Japan at this conference, his paper has been published elsewhere (see Nakamura 2008).
- 3.
According to the Bulletin of the National Research Council (Brown et al. 1922), the report of the Committee on Celestial Mechanics consisted of three general divisions: (1) the Solar System (the Moon, the eight major planets, their satellites other than the Moon, the asteroids or minor planets and comets); (2) celestial mechanics as applied to the stars (the problems of the orbit determination for cases of visual, spectroscopic or eclipsing binaries; the internal constitution of stars; the oscillations of a gaseous star about its normal equilibrium (Cepheids), the origin and evolution of binary stars); and (3) the theory of the problem of three or more bodies. This report did not refer to the Hirayama families.
- 4.
When Uematsu argued the E–W problem in latitude observations in 1967, he referred to Hirayama’s work.
- 5.
Astronomers and physicists discussed the Z-term and Hirayama’s opinion openly at a colloquium held at the TAO on 7 May 1908 (see Shinzi Honda 1908).
- 6.
At that time, Otaru (Hokkado) was a key port of the Sakhalin Line, linking Japan and Russia.
- 7.
- 8.
- 9.
See the following web site: http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/jshs/his_jshs/hist.html.
- 10.
By about 1940 Hirayama had assembled an extensive card catalogue of Japanese books on astronomy that pre-dated the Meiji Restoration. Unfortunately this invaluable research tools was destroyed by fire during WWII (Kanda 1962).
References
Hirayama’s Papers
Hirayama, Kiyotsugu, 1907a. On a systematic error of the latitude observed with a zenith telescope. Astronomische Nachrichten, Band 176Nr.4207, 104–105.
Hirayama, K., 1907b. Declinations and proper motions of 246 stars. Annales de l’Observatorie Astronomique de Tokyo, IV, 1–181.
Hirayama, K., 1907c. Determination of latitude made in Sakhalin by members of the Russo-Japanese Boundary Commissions in 1906 and 1907. Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-Physical Society, Second Series, 4, 329–336.
Hirayama, K., 1908. On the results of the International Latitude Observations. 1900–1904. Astronomische Nachrichten, 179, 133–190.
Hirayama, K., 1909. On the flexure of the tubes of zenith telescopes. Astronomische Nachrichten, Band 181 Nr. 4332, 183–190.
Hirayama, K., 1910. Halley’s Comet in Japanese history. The Observatory, 33, 130–133.
Hirayama, K., 1911. On the comets of A.D. 373 and 374. The Observatory, 34, 193–199.
Hirayama, K., 1917a. Researches on the distribution of the mean motions of the asteroids. Journal of the College of the Science, Tokyo Imperial University, 41, 1–57.
Hirayama, K., 1917b. Beikoku no Tenmongaku to Tenmondai. Tenmon Geppou (The Astronomical Herald), 11(1), 2–10 (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., 1918. Groups of asteroids probably of common origin. The Astronomical Journal, 31, 185–188.
Hirayama, K., 1919. Further note on the families of asteroids. Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-Physical Society, Third Series, 1, 52–59.
Hirayama, K., 1920. New asteroids belonging to the families. Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-Physical Society, Third Series, 2, 236–240.
Hirayama, K., 1922. Families of asteroids. Japanese Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics, 1(3), 55–93.
Hirayama, K., 1927a. On the stability of the retrograde planetary motion. The Proceeding of the Imperial Academy of Japan, 3, 9–12.
Hirayama, K., 1927b. Families of asteroids. Second paper. Japanese Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics, 5(3), 137–162.
Hirayama, K., 1928. Note on an explanation of the gaps of the asteroidal orbits. The Astronomical Journal, 38, 147–148.
Hirayama, K., 1929. Records of Leonids in the Far East. The Observatory, 52, 241–246.
Hirayama, K., 1931a. An explanations of periodic variable stars. Nihon Tenmongakkai Youhou (Reports of Astronomical Society of Japan), 1, 258–272 (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., 1931b. An explanation of the periodic variable stars. The Proceeding of the Imperial Academy of Japan, 7, 247–250.
Hirayama, K., 1931c. Motion of the stars in nebulous matter. The Proceeding of the Imperial Academy of Japan, 7, 182–185.
Hirayama, K., 1931d. On stellar evolution. Nihon Tenmongakkai Youhou (Reports of Astronomical Society of Japan), 1, 182–199 (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., 1932. An explanation of the quasi-periodic variable stars. The Proceeding of the Imperial Academy of Japan, 8, 143–146.
Hirayama, K., 1933a. Beia Ryoko zakki(1). Tenmon Geppou (The Astronomical Herald), 26(4), 68–70 (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., 1933b. Beia Ryoko zakki(2). Tenmon Geppou (The Astronomical Herald), 26(5), 88–90 (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., 1933c. Calendrical and Time Systems. Tokyo, Kouseisya (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., 1933d. Present state of the families of asteroids. The Proceeding of the Imperial Academy of Japan, 9, 482–485.
Hirayama, K., 1935a. Asteroids. Tokyo, Iwanami Syoten (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., 1935b. On the Japan-Russia borderline on Sakhalin island [1]-[2]. Tenmon Geppou (The Astronomical Herald). 28(6), 89–92, and 28(7), 110–112 (in Japanese).
Hirayama, K., and Akiyama, K., 1937. Libration of the Asteroid Hilda. Japanese Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics, 15, 137–148.
Hirayama, K., and Ogura, S., 1915. On the eclipses recorded in the Shu Ching and Shih Ching. Proceedings of the Tokyo Mathematico-Physical Society, Second Series, 8, 2–8.
Hirayama, S., Hirayama, K., and Sotome, K., 1903. Report on the total eclipse of the Sun observed at Padang, Sumatra, on May 18, 1901. Annales de l’Observatoire Astronomique de Tokyo, III, 1–26.
Other References
Abe, S., 1996. On the systematic error in the latitude observations with the visual zenith telescope at Mizusawa. The Proceedings of the International Latitude Observatory of Mizusawa, 6, 32–41.
Anonymous, 1910. The Borderline Determination on Sakhalin Island. Tokyo, Army of Japan (in Japanese).
Bartholomew, J.R., 1989. The Formation of Science in Japan. New Haven, Yale University Press.
Barton, G.., 1924. The inter-relations of the asteroid elements. The Astronomical Journal, 35, 159–162.
Blaauw, A., 1994. History of the IAU: The Birth and First Half-century of the International Astronomical Union. Dordrecht, Kluwer.
Bottke, W.M. Jn., et al. (eds.), 2002. Asteroids III. Tucson, University of Arizona Press.
Brouwer, D., 1951. Secular variations of the orbital elements of the minor planets. The Astronomical Journal, 56, 9–32.
Brown, E.W., 1912. On librations in planetary and satellite systems. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 72, 609–630.
Brown, E.W., 1919. Tables of the Motion of the Moon. Three Volumes. New Haven, Yale University Press.
Brown, E.W., 1921. On the passage of a star through a nebula. The Astrophysical Journal, 53, 169–178.
Brown, E.W., Birkhoff, G.D., Leuschner, A.O., and Russell, H.N. (eds.), 1922. Celestial mechanics. Bulletin of the National Research Council, 19, 1–22.
Brush, S., 1996. Fruitful Encounters. A History of Modern Planetary Sciences. Volume 3. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Chamberlin, T.C., 1901. On a possible function of disruptive approach in the formation of meteorites, comets, and nebulae. The Astrophysical Journal, 14, 17–40.
DeVorkin, D.H., and Kenat, R., 1983. Quantum physics and the stars (II): Henry Norris Russell and the abundances of the elements in the atmospheres of the Sun and stars. Journal for the History of Astronomy, 14, 180–222.
Fujiwara, A., 1982. Complete fragmentation of the parent bodies of Themis, Eos, and Koronis families. Icarus, 52, 434–443.
Gehrels, Tom (ed.), 1979. Asteroids. Tuscson, University of Arizona Press.
Hagihara, Y., 1927. A preliminary study on the stability of a certain satellite system. Japanese Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics, 5, 1–79.
Hagihara, Yusuke. 1943. To the memory of Prof. Hirayama. Tenmon Geppou, 36, 66–68 (in Japanese).
Hagihara, Y., 1947. Obituary Notices: Kiyotsugu Hirayama. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 7, 42–44.
Hayakawa, Kazuo, 1976. A borderline determination by astronomical means. Tenmon Geppou, 69, 175–181 (in Japanese).
Hellerich, J., 1925. Untersuchungen zum δ Cephei-problem. Astronomische Nachrichten, 224, 277–284.
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Kanda, Shigeru, 1962. Catalogues of astronomical books of the Edo Period. In Report on Astronomy of the Edo Period. Tokyo, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, 1–3 (in Japanese).
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Acknowledgements
We wish to thank Y. Kozai, H. Yokoo, S. Nakayama, K. Furukawa, T. Hirayama, Y. Tomita and K. Tanikawa, who kindly provided us with useful information and discussions on Hirayama Kiyotsugu.
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Appendices
Appendix 1. The Biographical Table of Hirayama Kiyotsugu (1874–1943)
The following table was developed from a hand-written manuscript by Kanda Shigeru (1894–1974), which is a biographical note of several eminent astronomers in Japan (courtesy of National Astronomical Observatory of Japan).
1874 | As a son of a civil engineer, he was born on 3 October in Sendai |
1894 | He entered the Tokyo Imperial University after his graduation from high school |
1897 | He graduated from the Imperial University (Astronomy) and started to study the textbook of celestial mechanics by Tisserand |
He obtained a position as a teacher in the engineering school attached to the General Staff Office of the Japanese Army, where he taught practical astronomy from 1897 to 1901 | |
1898 | On 25 September he began latitude observations at Tokyo Astronomical Observatory (1898∼1903) |
1901 | In February he was a member of a Solar Eclipse Expedition to Sumatra, with Hirayama Shin |
1906 | On 9 May he was appointed Assistant Professor of Astronomy at Tokyo Imperia University (specializing in practical astronomy) |
On 29 May the Japanese Government appointed him a member of Committee to determine the latitude 50° border at Sakhalin after the Russo-Japanese War. He went to Sakhalin (1906–1907), and was awarded St. Anna’s decoration by Russia | |
1908 | He was one of the promoters of the Japanese Astronomical Society. Assisted by Terao, he started to compute the ephemeris of the Moon and the planets at the TAO |
1909 | He discussed the E–W problem of latitude observation and the cause of Kimura’s Z term from 1907 to 1909 |
1910 | He tried to survey historical records (ancient eclipses and comets) in China, Korea and Japan |
1911 | He received a doctoral degree with several papers about the latitude variation |
1915 | He went to the U.S. Naval Observatory in Washington and Yale University (1915∼1917). At Yale he helped to compute a part of Brown’s lunar table. Brown inspired him with an explanation of gaps in the distribution of the mean motion of the asteroids |
1917 | He published the paper “Researches on the distribution of the mean motions of the asteroids.” in the Journal of the College of the Science, Tokyo Imperial University |
1918 | He published the paper “Groups of asteroids probably of common origin.” In The Astronomical Journal |
1919 | He became a Professor of Astronomy at Tokyo Imperial University after Terao’s retirement (celestial mechanics) |
1922 | He published the paper “Families of asteroids.” in the Japanese Journal of Astronomy and Geophysics |
1928 | He published the paper “Note on an explanation of the gaps of the asteroidal orbits.” in The Astronomical Journal, vol.38 no.903 (1928), 147–48 |
1931 | He tried to consider the motion of stars in a nebulous matter as the resisting medium from 1931 to 1935 |
1932 | When he attended the 4th IAU at Cambridge in US, he saw young Brouwer at the meeting |
1935 | He published his main work, Asteroids, and retired from the Tokyo Imperial University |
1943 | He died on 8 April 1943 in Tokyo |
Appendix 2. Historical Evolution of Subjects Taught at Department of Astronomy, TIU
1877– | Astronomy |
1886 | Theory and Practical Work for the Measurement of Gravity |
1886– 1897 | Astronomy, Spherical Astronomy, Method of Least Squares, Differential and Integral Calculus, General Mathematics, General Physics and Advanced Physics, Dynamics Experiments and Practical Sessions (astronomical observation, physics, mathematics) |
1897– 1901 | Astronomy and Method of Least Squares, Spherical Astronomy, Analytical Geometry, Celestial Mechanics, Differential and Integral Calculus, Theory of Differential Equations, Theory of Functions, Spherical Function Astrophysics, Dynamics, Experiments and Practical Sessions (astronomical observation, physics, mathematics) |
1901– 1919 | Astronomy and Method of Least Squares, Celestial Mechanics, Differential and Integral Calculus, Theory of Differential Equations, Theory of Functions, Spherical Function, Astrophysics, Elementary Class in Theoretical Physics, Applied Physics Potential theory, Experiments and practices (Astronomical observation, physics, mathematics) |
1919– | Compulsory subjects: Spherical Astronomy, Celestial Mechanics, Calendar, Theory of Periodic Orbits, Method of Least Squares, Theory of Orbits, Differential and Integral Calculus, Astrophysics, General Physics, Dynamics, Practical Astronomy, Astronomical Observation |
Irregular subjects: General Astronomy, Special Perturbation, Tidal theory, The Motion of the Moon and Satellite, The Spectrum, Thermodynamics, Relativity and Gravity, Electron Theory, Quantum Theory, Geometrical Optics | |
Optional subjects: Electromagnetism and Optics, Material Science and the Theory of Heat, Theory of Differential Equations, Theory of Functions, Hydromechanics, Geometry |
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Yoshida, S., Nakamura, T. (2011). Hirayama Kiyotsugu: Discoverer of Asteroid Families. In: Orchiston, W., Nakamura, T., Strom, R. (eds) Highlighting the History of Astronomy in the Asia-Pacific Region. Astrophysics and Space Science Proceedings. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-8161-5_10
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