Abstract
In dry, rainfed lands of the world crop yield potential is usually limited by both low rainfall and degraded soil, as well as social and economic constraints. Though the Mediterranean region is the site of the origin of modern agriculture, the Mediterranean climate, with its characteristic relatively cool, moist growing season followed by a hot, dry period, imposes severe limitations on agriculture. The rainfed cropping systems that have evolved in response to climate are also influenced by regional and global socio-economic forces, which contribute to increased land-use pressure. This chapter gives an overview of rainfed farming in the WANA lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea, the climatic environment that governs and the soil resources that sustain it. Emphasis is given to specific cropping systems, soil fertility and crop nutrition, water-use efficiency, cereal-based rotations in relation to cropping sustainability and to soil quality. While most of the studies cited are from the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) based in the northern rainfed zone of Syria, the findings are generally applicable to the medium-range rainfall zone (300–500 mm/year) throughout the Mediterranean region. These studies also reflect the contributions of various national agricultural research systems and organisations that have cooperated with ICARDA especially in Morocco, Turkey and Pakistan. The chapter highlights some of the major changes that have impinged upon the region’s rainfed farming systems in the past few decades, with implications for the future of rainfed cropping sustainability in the Mediterranean region.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Notes
- 1.
See Glossary.
- 2.
See Glossary.
- 3.
See Glossary for botanical names.
- 4.
See Glossary for botanical names.
References
Abdel Monem M, Azzaoui A, El Gharous M, Ryan J, Soltanpour P (1990) Fertiliser placement for dryland wheat in central Morocco. In: Ryan J, Matar A (eds) Soil test calibration in West Asia and North Africa. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ICARDA, Aleppo, pp 149–162
Amin S (1976) Unequal development. Monthly Review Press, London
Amir J, Sinclair TR (1994) Cereal grain yield: biblical aspirations and modern experience in the Middle East. Agron J 86:362–364
Anderson WK (1985) Differences in response of winter cereal varieties to applied nitrogen in the field. I. Some factors affecting the variability of responses between sites and seasons. Field Crops Res 11:353–367
Cakmak I (1998) Selection and characterization of cereal genotypes with high zinc efficiency and evolution of bioavailability of zinc in wheat for the Central Anatolia Region, Nato-Science for Stability Program. Kemal Printing Co., Adana
Carter VG (1974) Topsoil and civilization. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman
Cassman KG (1999) Ecological intensification of cereal production systems: yield potential, soil quality, and precision agriculture. In: Proceedings of the National Academy of Science. Colloquium paper 96, pp 5952–5959
Christiansen S, Bounejmate M, Sawny-Edo H, Mawlawi B, Shomo F, Cocks PC, Nordblom T (2000) Tah village project in Syria: another unsuccessful attempt to introduce ley farming in the Mediterranean basin. Exp Agric 36:181–193
Clawson M, Landsberg HH, Alexander LS (1971) The agricultural potential of the Middle East. Elsevier, New York
Cooper PJM (1983) Crop management in rainfed agriculture with special reference to water-use efficiency. In: Proceedings of the 17th colloquium of the International Potash Institute, Bern
Cooper PJM, Gregory PJ (1987) Soil water management in the rainfed farming systems of the Mediterranean region. Soil Use Manage 32:57–62
Cooper PJM, Gregory PJ, Tully D, Harris HC (1987a) Improving water-use efficiency of annual crops in the rainfed farming systems of West Asia and North Africa. Exp Agric 23:113–158
Cooper PJM, Gregory PJ, Keatinge JDH, Brown SC (1987b) Effects of fertiliser, variety and location on barley production under rainfed conditions in northern Syria, 2. Soil water dynamics and crop water use. Field Crops Res 16:67–84
Damania AB, Valkoun J, Willcox G, Qualset CO (eds.) (1998) The origins of agriculture and crop domestication. In: Proceedings of the Harlan symposium. International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo, 10–14 May 1997
Deckers JA, Nachtergaele FO, Spaargaren OC (1998) World reference base for soil resources. International Soil Reference and Information Center, ACCO, Leuven
Dregne HE (1976) Soils of arid regions. Elsevier, New York
Dregne HE (2006) Historical perspectives. In: Peterson GA, Unger PW, Payne WA (eds.) Dryland agriculture, agronomy monograph no 23. American Society of agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Madison, pp 27–38
Emberger C, Gaussen H, Kassas M, de Phillipis A (1963) Bioclimatic map of the Mediterranean zone: explanatory notes. UNESCO-FAO, Paris
Gibbon D (1981) Rainfed systems in the Mediterranean region. Plant Soil 58:39–80
Grove AT (1996) The historical context: before 1850. In: Brandt CJ, Thornes JB (eds.) Mediterranean desertification and land use. Wiley, Chichester, pp 13–17
Harlan JR (1992) Crops and man, 2nd edn. American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Madison
Harmsen K (1984) Nitrogen fertiliser use in rainfed agriculture. Fertil Res 5:371–382
Harris HC (1994) Water-use efficiency of crop rotations in a Mediterranean environment. Aspect Appl Biol 38:165–172
Harris HC (1995) Long-term trials on crop and soil management at ICARDA. Adv Soil Sci 19:447–469
Harris HC, Cooper PJM, Pala M (1991) Soil and water management for improved water use efficiency in rainfed areas. In: Proceedings of an international workshop, Ankara, 15–19 May 1989. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo
IFADATA (2006) Statistics: production, import, export, and consumption data for nitrogen, phosphate, and potash fertilisers. International Fertiliser Industry Association, Paris
Johnston AE, Powlson D (1994) The setting-up, conduct and applicability of long-term, continuing field experiments in agricultural research. In: Greenland DJ, Szabolics I (eds.) Soil resilience and sustainable land use. CAB International, Wallingford, pp 355–421
Jones MJ (1993) An explanation of a concept. In: Crop protection and sustainable agriculture. Wiley, Chichester, pp 30–47
Jones M (1998) The challenge of production system sustainability: long-term studies in agronomic research in dry areas. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo
Jones MJ, Singh M (2000) Long-term yield patterns of barley-based cropping systems in northern Syria. 3. Barley mono-cropping. J Agric Sci, Cambridge 135:251–259
Jones MJ, Wahbi A (1992) Site-factor influence on barley response to fertiliser in on-form trials in northern Syria: descriptive and predictive models. Exp Agric 28:63–87
Kassam AH (1981) Climate, soil and land resources in North Africa and West Asia. Plant Soil 58:1–29
Keatinge JDH, Dennett MD, Rogers J (1985) The influence of precipitation regime on the management of three-course crop rotations in northern Syria. J Agric Sci, Cambridge 104:281–287
Keatinge JDH, Dennett MD, Rogers J (1986) The influence of precipitation regime on the crop management in dry areas in northern Syria. Field Crops Res 12:239–249
Lal R (2000) Soil management in developing countries. Soil Sci 165:57–72
Lonergan JF (1997) Plant nutrition in the 20th and perspectives for the 21st century. Plant Soil 196:163–174
Masri Z, Ryan J (2006) Soil aggregation and related physical properties in a Mediterranean wheat-based, long-term rotation trial. Soil Tillage Res 87:146–154
Matar A, Torrent J, Ryan J (1992) Soil and fertiliser phosphorus and crop responses in the dryland Mediterranean zone. Adv Soil Sci 18:82–146
Mazid A, Bailey E (1992) Incorporating risk in the economic analysis of agronomic trials: fertiliser use in Syria. Agric Econ 7:167–184
Monteith J, Webb C (1981) Soil water and nitrogen in Mediterranean-type environments, developments in plant and soil science, vol 1. Martinus Nijhoff/Dr W. Junk Publishers, The Hague
Mrabet R (2008) No-tillage systems for sustainable dryland agriculture in Morocco. INRA, Tangiers, Morocco published by the author
Nordblom T, Pannell DJ, Christiansen S, Nersoyan N, Bahhady F (1994) From weed to wealth? prospects for medic pastures in the Mediterranean farming systems of north-east Syria. Agric Econ 11:29–42
Oweis T, Pala M, Ryan J (1998) Stabilizing rainfed wheat yields with supplemental irrigation in the Mediterranean region. Agron J 90:186–196
Pala M, Van Duivenbooden N, Studer C, Bilders CL (1999) Cropping systems and crop complementarity in dryland agriculture. In: Van Duivenbooden N, Pala M, Studer C, Bilders CL (eds.) Efficient soil water use: the key to sustainable development in the dry areas of West Asia, and North and Sub-Saharan Africa. Proceedings of the 1998 (Niger) and 1999 (Jordan) workshops of the Optimizing Soil Water Use (OSWU) Consortium. ICARDA, Aleppo and ICRISAT, Patancheru, pp 299–330
Pala M, Harris HC, Ryan J, Makboul R, Dozom S (2000) Tillage systems and stubble management in a Mediterranean-type environment in relation to crop yield and soil moisture. Exp Agric 36:223–242
Pala M, Ryan J, Mazid A, Abdallah O, Nachit M (2004) Wheat farming in Syria: an approach to economic transformation and sustainability. Renewable Agric Food Syst 19(1):30–34
Pala M, Ryan J, Zhang H, Singh M, Harris HC (2007) Water-use efficiency of wheat based rotations systems in a Mediterranean environment. Agric Water Manage 93:136–144
Pala M, Ryan J, Diekmann J, Singh M (2008) Barley and vetch yields from dryland rotations with varying tillage and residue management under Mediterranean conditions. Exp Agric 45:1–12
Peterson EH, Pannell DJ, Nordblom T, Shomo F (2002) Potential benefits from alternative areas of agricultural research for dryland farming in Northern Syria. Agric Syst 71:93–108
Peterson GA, Unger PW, Payne WA (eds.) (2006) Dryland agriculture agronomy monograph No. 23, 2nd edn. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison
Rao S, Ryan J (2004) Challenges and strategies of dryland agriculture. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, Special Publication No. 32
Rashid A, Ryan J (2008) Micronutrient constraints to crop production in the near East. In: Alloway BA (ed.) Micronutrient deficiencies in global production. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 149–180
Rashid A, Rafique E, Bughio N (1997) Micronutrient deficiencies in rainfed soil calcareous soils of Pakistan: II. Boron nutrition of the peanut plant. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 28:149–159
Rasmussen PE, Goulding KWT, Brown JR, Grace PR, Janzen H, Korchens M (1998) Long-term agroecosystem experiments: assessing agricultural sustainability and global change. Science 282:893–896
Rodriguez A, Pala M, Ryan J, Harris H (1999) ICARDA’s long-term cropping systems trial: an economic assessment. Agronomy Abstracts, American Society of Agronomy, Madison
Roy RN, Finck A, Blair GL, Tandon HLS (2006) Plant nutrition for food security a guide for integrated nutrient management, FAO fertiliser and plant nutrition bulletin 16. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Ryan J (1982) A perspective on soil erosion and conservation in Lebanon. Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, Lebanon, Publication No. 69
Ryan J (1997) Accomplishments and future challenges in dryland soil fertility research in the Mediterranean area. International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo
Ryan J (1998) Changes in organic carbon in long-term rotation and tillage trials in a northern Syria. In: Lal R, Kimble JM, Follett JF, Stewart BA (eds) Management of carbon sequestration in soil, advances in soil science. CRC Press, Boca Raton, pp 285–296
Ryan J (2002) Available soil nutrients and fertiliser use in relation to crop production in the Mediterranean area. In: Krishna KR (ed) Soil fertility and crop production. Science Publishers Inc., Enfield
Ryan J (2004) Soil fertility enhancement in Mediterranean-type dryland agriculture: a perspective for development. In: Rao S, Ryan J (eds) Challenges and strategies of dryland agriculture. Crop Science Society of America, Madison, pp 285–296, Special Publication No. 32
Ryan J (2008) A perspective on balanced fertilisation in the Mediterranean region. Turk J Agric For 32:79–89
Ryan J, Abdel Monem M (1998) Soil fertility management for sustainable production in the West Asia-North Africa region: need for long-term research. In: Lal R (ed) Soil quality and agriculture sustainability. Ann Arbor Press, Chelsea, pp 155–174
Ryan J, Matar AE (1992) Fertiliser use efficiency under rainfed agriculture in West Asia and North Africa. In: Proceedings of the 4th regional workshop, Agadir, 5–10 May 1991. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo
Ryan J, Pala M (2007) Syria’s long-term rotation and tillage trials: potential relevance to carbon sequestration in Central Asia. In: Lal R (ed) Carbon sequestration in Central Asia. Taylor & Francis, Leiden, pp 223–234
Ryan J, Masri S, Garabet S, Diekmann J, Habib H (1997) Soils of ICARDA’s agricultural experiment stations and sites: climate, classification, and chemical and physical properties, and land use, Technical Bulletin. International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas, Aleppo
Ryan J, Masri S, Pala M, Bounejemate M (2002) Barley-based rotations in a typical Mediterranean ecosystem: crop production trends and soil quality. Options mediterraneenees series A, vol 50, The International Center for Advanced Mediterranean Agronomic Studies (CIHEAM), Bari, Italy, pp 287–296
Ryan J, de Pauw E, Gomez H, Mrabet R (2006) Drylands of the Mediterranean zone: biophysical resources and cropping systems. In: Peterson GA, Unger PW, Payne WA (eds) Dryland agriculture, agronomy monograph no.23, 2nd edn. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison, pp 577–624
Ryan J, Ibrikci H, Singh M, Masri S, Rashid A, Pala M (2008a) Response of residual and currently applied phosphorus in dryland cereal/legume rotations in three Syrian Mediterranean agroecosystems. Eur J Agron 28:126–137
Ryan J, Masri S, Ibrikci H, Singh M, Pala M, Harris HC (2008b) Implications of cereal-based crop rotations, nitrogen fertilization, and stubble grazing on soil organic matter in a Mediterranean-type environment. Turk J Agric For 32:1–9
Ryan J, Pala M, Masri S, Singh M, Harris H (2008c) Rainfed wheat-based rotations under Mediterranean conditions: crop sequences, nitrogen fertilisation, and stubble grazing in relation to grain and straw quality. Eur J Agron 28:112–118
Ryan J, Singh M, Pala M (2008d) Long-term cereal-based rotation trials in the Mediterranean region: implications for cropping sustainability. Adv Agron 97:273–319
Ryan J, Masri S, Pala M, Singh M (2009) Nutrient dynamics in a long-term cereal based rotation trial in a Mediterranean environment: nitrogen forms. Commun Soil Sci Plant Anal 40:931–946
Shroyer J, Ryan J, Abdel Monem M, El-Mourid M (1990) Production of fall-planted wheat in Morocco and technology for its improvement. J Agron Educ 19:32–40
Smith RG, Harris HC (1981) Environmental resources and constraints to agricultural production in a Mediterranean-type environment. Plant Soil 58:31–57
Sommer R, Ryan J, Masri S, Singh M, Diekmann J (2011) Effect of shallow tillage, moldboard plowing, straw management and compost addition on soil organic matter and nitrogen in a dryland barley/wheat-vetch rotation. Soil & Tillage Res (in press)
Staff SS (1975) Soil taxonomy: a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, Washington, DC
Steiner JL, Day JC, Papendick RI, Mayer RE, Bertrand AR (1988) Improving and sustaining productivity in dryland regions of developing countries. Adv Soil Sci 8:79–122
Tanner CB, Sinclair TR (1983) Efficient water use in crop productions. In: Taylor HM, Jordan WK, Sinclair TR (eds) Limitations to efficient water use in crop production. American Society of Agronomy Crop Science Society of America Soil Science Society of America, Madison, pp 1–27
Tow PG, McArthur SR (1988) Introducing annual pasture legumes into Jordanian dryland farming. In: Proceedings of the International Dryland Farming Congress, College Station
Van Duivenbooden N, Pala M, Studer C, Bilders CL (eds) (1999) Efficient soil water use: the key to sustainable development in the dry areas of West Asia, and North and Sub-Saharan Africa. In: Proceedings of the 1998 (Niger) and 1999 (Jordan) workshops of the Optimizing Soil Water Use (OSWU) Consortium. ICARDA, Aleppo, and ICRISAT, Patancheru
Von Braun J (2007) The world food situation: new deriving forces and required actions. In: IFPRI’s biannual overview of the world food situation presented to the CGIAR annual general meeting, Beijing, 3 December 2007
White H (1970) Fallowing, crop rotation and crop yields in Roman times. Agric Hist 44:281–290
White PF, Nersoyan NK, Christiansen S (1994) Nitrogen cycling in a semi-arid Mediterranean region: changes in soil N and soil organic matter. Aust J Agric Res 45:1293–1307
Yau SK, Ryan J (2008) Boron toxicity tolerance in crops: a viable alternative to soil amelioration. Crop Sci 48:854–865
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Ryan, J. (2011). Rainfed Farming Systems in the West Asia–North Africa (WANA) Region. In: Tow, P., Cooper, I., Partridge, I., Birch, C. (eds) Rainfed Farming Systems. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9132-2_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9132-2_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-9131-5
Online ISBN: 978-1-4020-9132-2
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)