Anxiety and Insomnia

Theoretical Relationship and Future Research
  • Thomas W. Uhde
  • Bernadette M. Cortese
Chapter
Part of the Series In Anxiety and Related Disorders book series (SARD)

Keywords

Anxiety Disorder Generalize Anxiety Disorder Sleep Deprivation Sleep Duration Social Phobia 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Abelson, J. L., Khan, S., Liberzon, I., & Young, E. A. (2007). HPA axis activity in patients with panic disorder: review and synthesis of four studies. Depression and Anxiety, 24(1), 66–76.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  2. Alttoa, A., Eller, M., Herm, L., Rinken, A., & Harro, J. (2007). Amphetamine-induced locomotion, behavioral sensitization to amphetamine, and striatal D2 receptor function in rats with high or low spontaneous exploratory activity: differences in the role of locus coeruleus. Brain Research, 1131(1), 138–148.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  3. Bélanger, L., Morin, C. M., Langlois, F., & Ladouceur, R. (2004). Insomnia and generalized anxiety disorder: effects of cognitive behavior therapy for gad on insomnia symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18(4), 561–571.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  4. Blank, S., Lenze, E., Mulsant, B. H., Dew, M. A., Karp, J. F., Shear, M. K., et al. (2006). Outcomes of Late-Life Anxiety Disorders During 32 Weeks of Citalopram Treatment. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 67, 468–472.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  5. Bixler, E. O., Vgontzas, A. N., Lin, H. M., Vela-Bueno, A., & Kales, A. (2002). Insomnia in central Pennsylvania. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 53(1), 589–592.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  6. Breslau, N., Roth, T., Rosenthal, L., & Andreski, P. (1996). Sleep disturbance and psychiatric disorders: a longitudinal epidemiological study of young adults. Biological Psychiatry, 39(6), 411–418.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  7. Brown, T., & Uhde, T. W. (2003). Sleep Panic Attacks: A Micro-movement Analysis. Depression and Anxiety, 18, 214–220.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  8. Brown, T. M., Black, B., & Uhde, T. W. (1994). Sleep architecture in social phobia. Biological Psychiatry, 35, 420–421.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. Buhr, A., Bianchi, M. T., Baur, R., Courtet, P., Pignay, V., Boulenger, J.-P., et al. (2002). Functional characterization of the new human GABA A receptor mutation β3(R192H). Human Genetics, 111, 154–160.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989). The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research, 28(2), 193–213.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  11. Charney, D. S., & Redmond, D. E. (1983). Neurobiological mechanisms in human anxiety. Evidence supporting central noradrenergic hyperactivity. Neuropharmacology, 22(12B), 1531–1536.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Charney, D. S., Woods, S. W., Nagy, L. M., Southwick, S. M., Krystal, J. H., & Heninger, G. R. (1990). Noradrenergic function in panic disorder. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 51(Suppl A), 5–11.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. Cole, J. C., Motivala, S. J., Buysse, D. J., Oxman, M. N., Levin, M. J., & Irwin, M. R. (2006). Validation of a 3-factor scoring model for the Pittsburgh sleep quality index in older adults. Sleep, 29(1), 112–116,.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Cortese, B. M., & Uhde, T. W. (2006). Immobilization Panic. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 1453–1454.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  15. Coupland, N. J., Bell, C., Potokar, J. P., Dorkins, E., & Nutt, D. J. (2000). Flumazenil challenge in social phobia. Depression and Anxiety, 11(1), 27–30.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  16. Craske, M. G., & Tsao, J. C. (2005). Assessment and treatment of nocturnal panic attacks. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 9(3), 173–184.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  17. Davis, L. L., Frazier, E. C., Williford, R. B., & Newell, J. M. (2006). Long-term pharmacotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder. CNS Drugs, 20(6), 465–476.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  18. Dawson, G. R., Collinson, N., & Atack, J. R. (2005). Development of subtype selective GABAA modulators. CNS Spectr, 10(1), 21–27.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. DeViva, J. C., Zayfert, C., & Mellman, T. A. (2004). Factors associated with insomnia among civilians seeking treatment for PTSD: an exploratory study. Behavioral Sleep Medicine, 2(3), 162–176.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  20. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV™ American Psychiatric Association 2000. (DSM-IV-TR) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th edition, text revision. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, Inc.Google Scholar
  21. Dow, B. M., Kelsoe, J. R., Jr., & Gillin, J. C. (1996). Sleep and dreams in Vietnam PTSD and depression. Biological Psychiatry, 39, 42–50.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  22. Drake, C. L., Roehrs, T., & Roth, T. (2003). Insomnia causes, consequences, and therapeutics: an overview. Depress Anxiety, 18(4), 163–176.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  23. Drake, C. L., Jefferson, C., Roehrs, T., & Roth, T. (2006). Stress-related sleep disturbance and polysomnographic response to caffeine. Sleep Medicine, 7(7), 567–572.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  24. Dugas, M. J., & Ladouceur, R. (2000). Treatment of GAD: targeting intolerance of uncertainty in two types of worry. Behavior Modification, 24, 635–657.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  25. Engdahl, B. E., Eberly, R. E., Hurwitz, T. D., Mahowald, M. W., & Blake, J. (2000). Sleep in a community sample of elderly war veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 520–525.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  26. Foley, D. J., Monjan, A. A., Brown, S. L., Simonsick, E. M., Wallace, R. B., & Blazer, D. G. (1995). Sleep complaints among elderly persons: an epidemiologic study of three communities. Sleep, 18(6), 425–432.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. Fontaine, R., Beaudry, P., Le Morvan, P., Beauclair, L., & Chouinard, G. (1990). Zopiclone and triazolam in insomnia associated with generalized anxiety disorder: a placebo-controlled evaluation of efficacy and daytime anxiety. International Clinical Psychopharmacology, 5(3), 173–83.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  28. Ford, D. E., & Kamerow, D. B. (1989). Epidemiologic study of sleep disturbances and psychiatric disorders. An opportunity for prevention? JAMA, 262(11), 1479–1484.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  29. Ganguli, M., Reynolds, C. F., & Gilby, J. E. (1996). Prevalence and persistence of sleep complaints in a rural older community sample: the MoVIES project. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 44(7), 778–784.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. Gaus, S. E., Strecker, R. E., Tate, B. A., Parker, R. A., & Saper, C. B. (2002). Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus contains sleep-active, galaninergic neurons in multiple mammalian species. Neuroscience, 115(1), 285–94.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  31. Gregory, A. M., & O'Connor, T. G. (2002). Sleep problems in childhood: a longitudinal study of developmental change and association with behavioral problems. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41(8), 964–971.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  32. Heisler, L. K., Chu, H. M., Brennan, T. J., Danao, J. A., Bajwa, P., Parsons, L. H., et al. (1998). Elevated anxiety and antidepressant-like responses in serotonin 5-HT1A receptor mutant mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95(25), 15049–15054.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  33. Hoehn-Saric, R. (1981). Characteristics of chronic anxiety patients. In: D. F. Klein & J. G. Rabkin (Eds.), Anxiety: New research and changing concepts. New York: Raven Press.Google Scholar
  34. Hurwitz, T. D., Mahowald, M. S., Kuskowski, M., & Engdahl, B. E. (1988). Polysomnographic sleep is not clinically impaired in Vietnam combat veterans with chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Biol Psychiatry, 44(10), 1066–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  35. International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva. World Health Organization, 1992.Google Scholar
  36. Joffe, R. T., & Swinson, R. P. (1988). Total sleep deprivation in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 77(4), 483–487.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  37. Johnson, E. O., Chilcoat, H. D., & Breslau, N. (2000). Trouble sleeping and anxiety/depression in childhood. Psychiatry Research,. 94(2), 93–102.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  38. Johnson, E. O., Roth, T., & Breslau, N. (2006). The association of insomnia with anxiety disorders and depression: Exploration of the direction of risk. Journal of psychiatric Research, 40(8), 700–708.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  39. Kalueff, A., & Nutt, D. J. (1997). Role of GABA in memory and anxiety. Depression and Anxiety, 4, 100–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. Kaschka, W., Feistel, H., & Ebert, D. (1995). Reduced benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorders measured by iomazenil SPECT. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 29(5), 427–34.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  41. Kessler, R. C., Amminger, G. P., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Lee, S., & Ustün, T. B. (2007). Age of onset of mental disorders: a review of recent literature. Current Opinion Psychiatry, 20(4), 359–364.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  42. Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62(6), 593–602.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  43. Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., & Eshleman, S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(1), 8–19.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  44. Labbate, L. A., Johnson, M. R., Lydiard, R. B., Brawman-Mintzer, O., Emmanuel, N., Crawford M., et al. (1997). Sleep deprivation in panic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 42(9), 982–983.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. Labbate, L. A., Johnson, M. R., Lydiard, R. B., Brawman-Mintzer, O., Emmanuel, N., Crawford, M., et al. (1998). Sleep Deprivation in social phobia and generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 43(11), 840–842.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Laposky, A. D., Homanics, G. E., Baile, A., & Mendelson, W. B. (2001). Deletion of the GABA(A) receptor beta 3 subunit eliminates the hypnotic actions of oleamide in mice. Neurorepot, 12, 4143–4147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  47. Lin, A. S-K., Uhde, T. W., Slate, S. O., & McCann, U. D. (1997). Effects of intravenous caffeine administered to healthy males during sleep. Depression and Anxiety, 5(1), 21–28.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  48. Malizia, A. L., Cunningham, V. J., Bell, C. J., Liddle, P. F., Jones, T., & Nutt, D. J. (1998). Decreased brain GABA(A)-benzodiazepine receptor binding in panic disorder: preliminary results from a quantitative PET study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55(8), 715–720.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  49. Means, M. K., Edinger, J. D., Glenn, D. M., & Fins, A. I. (2003). Accuracy of sleep perceptions among insomnia sufferers and normal sleepers. Sleep Medicinal, 4(4), 285–296.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. Mellinger, G. D., Balter, M. B., & Uhlenhuth, E. H. (1985). Insomnia and its treatment: Prevalence and correlates. Archives of General Psychiatry, 42(3), 225–232.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. Mellman, T. A. (1997). Psychobiology of sleep disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Ann N.Y. Academy of Sciences, 821, 142–149.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  52. Mellman, T. A., & Uhde, T. W. (1990). Patients with frequent sleep panic: Clinical findings and response to medication treatment. The Journal of clinical psychiatry, 51(12), 513–516.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. Mellman, T. A., & Uhde, T. W. (1989). Sleep panic attacks: New clinical findings and theoretical implications. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 1204–1207.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. Millard, T. P., Lewis, C. M., Khamashta, M. A., Hughes, G. R., Hawk, J. L., & McGregor, J. M. (2001). Familial clustering of polymorphic light eruption in relatives of patients with lupus erythematosus: evidence of a shared pathogenesis. The British Journal of Dermatology, 144, 334–338.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  55. Millard, T. P., Kondeatis, E., Cox, A., Wilson, A. G., Grabczynska, S. A., Carey, B. S., et al. (2001). A candidate gene analysis of three related photosensitivity disorders: cutaneous lupus erythematosus, polymorphic light eruption and actinic prurigo. The British Journal of Dermatology, 145, 229–236.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  56. Mohler, H., Fritschy, J. M., & Rudolph, U. (2002). A new benzodiazepine pharmacology. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 300, 2–8.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  57. Mohler, H., Fritschy, J. M., Vogt, K., Crestani, F., & Rudolph, U. (2005). Pathophysiology and pharmacology of GABA(A) receptors. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, 169, 225–247.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. Monane, M. (1992). Insomnia in the elderly. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 53 (Suppl), 23–28.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. Morin, C. M. (1993). Insomnia: Psychological assessment and management. New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  60. Morphy, H., Dunn, K. M., Lewis, M., Boardman, H. F., & Croft, P. R. (2007). Epidemiology of insomnia: A longitudinal study in a UK population. Sleep, 30(3), 274–280.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. Moruzzi, G., & Magoun. H. W. (1949). Brain stem reticular formation and activation of the EEG. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 1, 455–473.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. Nofzinger, E. A., Buysse, D. J., Miewald, J. M., Meltzer, C. C., Price, J. C., Sembrat, R. C., et al. (2002). Human regional cerebral glucose metabolism during non-rapid eye movement sleep in relation to waking. Brain, 125(Pt 5), 1105–15.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  63. Nofzinger, E. A., Nichols, T. E., Meltzer, C. C., Price, J., Steppe, D. A., Miewald, J. M., et al. (1999). Changes in forebrain function from waking to REM sleep in depression: preliminary analyses of [18F]FDG PET studies. Psychiatry Research, 91(2), 59–78.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  64. Nofzinger, E. A. (2004). What can neuroimaging findings tell us about sleep disorders? Sleep Medicinal, 5 (Suppl 1), S16–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  65. Nutt, D. J., Glue, P., Lawson, C. (1990). The Neurochemistry of anxiety: an update. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 14, 737–752.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  66. Ohayon, M. M., Caulet, M., & Lemoine, P. (1998). Comorbidity of mental and insomnia disorders in the general population. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 39(4), 185–97.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. Ohayon, M. M., & Roth, T. (2003). Place of chronic insomnia in the course of depressive and anxiety disorders. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 37(1), 9–15.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  68. Paavonen, E. J., Solantaus, T., Almqvist, F., & Aronen, E. T. (2003). Four-year follow-up study of sleep and psychiatric symptoms in preadolescents: relationship of persistent and temporary sleep problems to psychiatric symptoms. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 24(5), 307–314.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  69. Papadimitriou, G. N., & Linikowski, P. (2005). Sleep disturbance in anxiety disorders. Int Review of Psychiatry, 17(4), 229–236.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  70. Parks, C. L., Robinson, P. S., Sibille, E., Shenk, T., & Toth, M. (1998). Increased anxiety of mice lacking the serotonin1A receptor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95(18), 10734–10739.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  71. Ramboz, S., Oosting, R., Amara, D. A., Kung, H. F., Blier, P., Mendelsohn, M., et al. (1998). Serotonin receptor 1A knockout: an animal model of anxiety-related disorder. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95(24), 14476–14481.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  72. Raskind, M., Peskind, E., Kanter, E., Petrie, E. C., Radant, A., Thompson, C. E., et al. (2003). Reduction of nightmares and other PTSD symptoms in combat veterans by prazosin: a placebo-controlled study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 371–373.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Rosa, R. R., & Bonnet, M. H. (2000). Reported chronic insomnia is independent of poor sleep as measured by electroencephalography. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62(4), 474–482.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. Ross, R. J., Ball, W. A., Dinges, D. F., Kribbs, N. B., Morrison, A. R., Silver, S. M., et al. (1994). Rapid eye movement sleep disturbance in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 35, 195–202.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  75. Roth, T., Roehrs, T., & Pies, R. (2007). Insomnia: pathophysiology and implications for treatment. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11(1), 71–79.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  76. Roth, T., Walsh, J. K., Krystal, A., Wessel, T., & Roehrs, T.A. (2005). An evaluation of the efficacy and safety of eszopiclone over 12 months in patients with chronic primary insomnia. Sleep Medicine, 6(6), 487–495.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  77. Roy-Byrne, P. P., Uhde, T. W., & Post, R. M. (1986). Effects of one night's sleep deprivation on mood and behavior in panic disorder. Patients with panic disorder compared with depressed patients and normal controls. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43(9), 895–899.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. Rowlett, J. K., Cook, J. M., Duke, A. N., & Platt, D. M. (2005). Selective antagonism of GABAA receptor subtypes: an in vivo approach to exploring the therapeutic and side effects of benzodiazepine-type drugs. CNS Spectr, 10, 40–48.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  79. Rush, C. R. (1998). Behavioral pharmacology of zolpidem relative to benzodiazepines: a review. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 61, 253–269.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  80. Saletu, B., Saletu-Zyhlarz, G., Anderer, P., Brandstater, N., Frey, R., Gruber, G., et al. (1997). Nonorganic insomnia in generalized anxiety disorder: controlled studies on sleep. Awakening and daytime vigilance utilizing polysomnography and EEG mapping. Neuropsychobiology, 36, 117–129.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. Sheikh, J. I., Woodward, S. H., & Leskin, G. A. (2003). Sleep in post-traumatic stress disorder: convergence and divergence. Depression and Anxiety, 18(4), 187–197.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  82. Singareddy, R., Uhde, T. W., & Commissaris, R. (2006). Differential Effects of Hypocretins on Noise Alone versus Potentiated Startle Responses. physiology Behavior, 89(5), 650–655.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  83. Stepanski, E., Zorick, F., Roehrs, T., & Roth T. (2000). Effects of sleep deprivation on daytime sleepiness in primary insomnia. Sleep, 23(2), 215–219.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  84. Sullivan, G. M., Coplan, J. D., Kent, J. M., & Gorman, J. M. (1999). The noradrenergic system in pathological anxiety: a focus on panic with relevance to generalized anxiety and phobias. Biological Psychiatry, 46(9), 1205–1218.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  85. Tiihonen, J., Kuikka, J., Rasanen, P., Lepola, U., Koponen, H., Liuska, A., et al. (1997). Cerebral benzodiazepine receptor binding and distribution in generalized anxiety disorders: A fractal analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 6, 464–471.Google Scholar
  86. Tursen, U., Kaya, T. I., Eskandari, G., Bocekli, E., Muslu, N., Camdeviren, H., et al. (2004). Apolipoprotein E gene polymorphism and serum lipids in patients with superficial fungal disease. Yonsei Medical Journal, 45, 375–379.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  87. Uhde, T. W. (2000). The anxiety disorders. In: M. H. Kryger, T. Roth, & W. Dement (Eds.), Principles and practice in sleep medicine (3rd ed., pp. 1123–1139). W. B. Saunders: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
  88. Uhde, T. W. (1995). Caffeine-induced anxiety: An ideal chemical model of panic disorder: In: G. Asnis & H. M. van Praag (Eds.), Einstein monograph series in psychiatry (pp. 181–205). New York: Wiley-Liss.Google Scholar
  89. Uhde, T. W., Boulenger, J-P., Roy-Byrne, P. P., Vittone, B. J., & Post, R. M. (1985). Longitudinal course of panic disorder: Clinical and biological considerations. Progress Neuropsychopharmacology Biological Psychiatry, 9, 39–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  90. Uhde, T., Merritt-Davis, O., Yaroslavsky, Y., Glitz, D., Singareddy, R. K., & Cortese, B. M. (2006). Sleep paralysis: overlooked fearful arousal. 159th annual meeting of the American Psychiatric Association, Toronto, Canada, May 20–25, 2006 in syllabus & proceedings summary, symposium 96, fearful sleep arousals (pp. 250–251), Abstract #96D.Google Scholar
  91. Uhde, T. W., Roy-Byrne, P. P., Gillin, J. C., Mendelson, W. D., Boulenger, J-P., Vittone, B. J., et al. (1984). The sleep of patients with panic disorder: A preliminary report. Psychiatry Research, 12(3), 251–259.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  92. Uhde, T. W., & Singareddy, R. (2002). Biological research in anxiety disorders. In: M. Maj (Ed.), Psychiatry as a Neuroscience, (pp. 237–285). New York City, New York: John Wiley and Sons.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  93. Uhde, T. W., Stein, M. B., Siever, L. J., Vittone, B. J., Boulenger, J-P., Klein, E. H., et al. (1989). Behavioral and physiological effects of short-term and long-term administration of clonidine in panic disorder. Archives of general psychiatry, 46, 170–177.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  94. Vgontzas, A. N., & Chrousos, G. P. (2002). Sleep, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and cytokines: multiple interactions and disturbances in sleep disorders. Endocrinal Metabolic clinics of North America, 31(1), 15–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  95. Weissman, M. M., Greenwald, S., Niño-Murcia, G., & Dement, W. C. (1997). The morbidity of insomnia uncomplicated by psychiatric disorders. General Hospital Psychiatry, 19(4), 245–250.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  96. Winokur, A., Gary, K. A., Rodner, S., Rae-Red, C, Fernando, A. T., & Szuba, M. P. (2001). Depression, sleep physiology, and antidepressant drugs. Depression and Anxiety, 14(1), 19–28.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  97. Zhang, B., & Wing, Y. K. (2006). Sex differences in insomnia: a meta-analysis. Sleep, 29(1), 85–93.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  98. Zorumski, C. F., & Isenberg, K. E. (1991). Insights into the structure and function of GABA-benzodiazepine receptors: Ion channels and psychiatry. The American journal of psychiatry, 148, 162–173.PubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2008

Authors and Affiliations

  • Thomas W. Uhde
    • 1
  • Bernadette M. Cortese
  1. 1.Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral SciencesMedical University of South Carolina (MUSC)Charleston

Personalised recommendations