PET-CT of Thyroid Cancer

Chapter
First Online:

Abstract

Clinical thyroid cancer is an uncommon disease, representing only about 1% of all cancers. Microscopic papillary carcinomas, however, are very common, with an incidence reported as high as 35.6%. The most common site for persistent disease, recurrence, and lymph node metastases is the neck. Interpretation of PET images of the neck region presents a particular challenge. The region shows substantial variations in normal uptake that can present difficulties in the identification of pathology. PET-CT or PET fused with a diagnostic CT is of great help to differentiate between physiologic muscle uptake and pathologic uptake in tumor or metastatic lymph nodes. FDG PET-CT is an expensive procedure and is probably most useful in patients with more aggressive thyroid cancer before planned surgery or radiation therapy and to monitor such patients. Neck ultrasound, neck and chest CT, and 131- or 123-I scanning will normally be the first line imaging modalities. In most studies evaluating PET as a diagnostic tool in thyroid cancer, the PET examinations have been performed with PET only without integrated CT. Combined PET-CT is shown to be more accurate than PET alone in the detection and anatomic localization, leading to improved diagnostic accuracy in most cancers, including suspected recurrent or metastatic well-differentiated thyroid cancer. The role of FDG PET in the diagnosis and follow-up medullary thyroid cancer is not well defined.

Keywords

Thyroid Cancer Thyroid Carcinoma Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma Differentiate Thyroid Cancer 
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. 1.
    Harach HR, Franssila KO, Wasenius VM. Occult papillary carcinoma of the thyroid. A “normal” finding in Finland. A systematic autopsy study. Cancer 1985;56:531–538.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. 2.
    DeLellis RA, Lloyd RV, Heitz PU, Eng C, eds. Tumours of the thyroid and the thyroid gland. In: World Health Organization Classification of Tumours: Pathology and genetics of tumors of endocrine organs. Lyon: IARC Press, 2004, pp. 49–133.Google Scholar
  3. 3.
    Carlson EH. Endocrine neoplasms. In: Casciato DA, ed. Manual of clinical oncology, 5th edn. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004, pp. 333–354.Google Scholar
  4. 4.
    Leboulleux S, Baudin E, Young J, Caillou B, Lazar V, Pellegriti G, Ducreux M, Schaison G, Schlumberger M. Gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumor metastases to the thyroid gland: differential diagnosis with medullary thyroid carcinoma. Eur J Endocrinol 1999;140:187–191.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  5. 5.
    Schlumberger M, Tubiana M, Chanson P, Schaison G. Cancer of the endocrine glands. In: Rubin P, ed. Clinical oncology, 8th edn. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2001, pp. 648–684.Google Scholar
  6. 6.
    Silver RJ, Parangi S. Management of thyroid incidentalomas. Surg Clin North Am 2004;84:907–919.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. 7.
    Hegedus L. Clinical practice. The thyroid nodule. NEJM 2004;351:1764–1771.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. 8.
    Franc B, Salmonière PDL, Lange F, Hoang C, Louvel A, Roquanucourt, Vildè F, Hejblum G, Chevret S, Chastang C. Interobserver and intraobserver reproducibility in the histopathology of follicular thyroid carcinoma. Hum Pathol 1993;34:1092–1100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  9. 9.
    Samaan NA, Schultz PN, Hickey RC, Goepfert H, Haynie TP, Johnston DA, Ordonez NG. The results of various modalities of treatment of well differentiated thyroid carcinomas: a retrospective review of 1599 patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992;75:714–720.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. 10.
    Mazzaferri EL, Jhiang SM. Long-term impact of initial surgical and medical therapy on papillary and follicular thyroid cancer. Am J Med 1994;97:418–428.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. 11.
    Hay ID, Thompson GB, Grant CS, Bergstralh EJ, Dvorak CE, Gorman CA, Maurer MS, McIver B, Mullan BP, Oberg AL, Powell CC, van Heerden JA, Goellner JR. Papillary thyroid carcinoma managed at the Mayo Clinic during six decades (1940–1999): temporal trends in initial therapy and long-term outcome in 2444 consecutively treated patients. World J Surg 2002;26:879–885.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. 12.
    Mazzaferri EL, Robbins RJ, Spencer CA, Braverman LE, Pacini F, Wartofsky L, Haugen BR, Sherman SI, Cooper DS, Braunstein GD, Lee S, Davies TF, Arafah BM, Ladenson PW, Pinchera A. A consensus report of the role of serum thyroglobulin as a monitoring method for low-risk patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma.J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:1433–1441.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  13. 13.
    Schlumberger M, Berg G, Cohen O, Duntas L, Jamar F, Jarzab B, Limbert E, Lind P, Pacini F, Reiners C, Sanchez Franco F, Toft A, Wiersinga WM. Follow-up of low-risk patients with differentiated thyroid carcinoma: a European perspective. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;150:105–112.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. 14.
    Torlontano M, Attard M, Crocetti U, Tumino S, Bruno R, Costante G, D’Azzo G, Meringolo D, Ferretti E, Sacco R, Arturi F, Filetti S. Follow-up of low risk patients with papillary thyroid cancer: role of neck ultrasonography in detecting lymph node metastases. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:3402–3407.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  15. 15.
    Brenner DL, Breau RL, Suen JY. Cancer of the thyroid. In: Myers EN, Suen JY, Myers JN, Hanna EYN, eds. Cancer of the head and neck, 4th edn. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2003, pp. 431–464.Google Scholar
  16. 16.
    Clark OH, Noguchi S, eds. Thyroid cancer. St. Louis: Quality Medical Publishing, 2000.Google Scholar
  17. 17.
    Richter E, Feyerabend T. Normal lymph node topography CT atlas. Berlin: Springer Verlag, 2004, pp. 7–39.Google Scholar
  18. 18.
    Lewis BD, Hay ID, Charboneau JW, McIver B, Reading CC, Goellner JR. Percutaneous ethanol injection for treatment of cervical lymph node metastases in patients with papillary thyroid carcinoma. Am J Roentgenol 2002;178:699–704.Google Scholar
  19. 19.
    Lim CY, Yun JS, Lee J, Nam KH, Chung WY, Park CS. Percutaneous ethanol injection therapy for locally recurrent papillary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 2007;17:347–350.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  20. 20.
    Mazzaferri EL, Kloos RT. Current approaches to primary therapy for papillary and follicular thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1447–1463.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  21. 21.
    Ryan S, McNicholas M, Eustace S. Head and neck. In: Ryan S, McNicholas M, Eustace S, eds. Anatomy for diagnostic imaging, 2nd edn. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2004, pp. 1–47.Google Scholar
  22. 22.
    Phelps PD. The pharynx and the larynx: The neck. In: Sutton D, ed. Textbook of radiology and imaging, 7th edn. London: Churchill Livingstone, 2003, pp. 1489–1517.Google Scholar
  23. 23.
    Myers EN, Suen JY, Myers JN, Hanna EYN, eds. Cancer of the head and neck, 4th edn. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2003.Google Scholar
  24. 24.
    Greene, FL, Page DL, Fleming ID, Fritz AG, Balch CM, Haller DG, Morrow M, eds. AJCC cancer staging handbook, 6th edn. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002, pp. 27–87.Google Scholar
  25. 25.
    Harnsberger HR. Handbook of head and neck imaging, 2nd edn. St. Louis: Mosby, 1995.Google Scholar
  26. 26.
    Brierley JD, PanzarellaT, Tsang RW, Gospodarowitz MK, ÓSullivan B. A comparison of different staging systems predictability of patient outcome, Thyroid carcinoma as an example. Cancer 1997;79:2414–2423.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. 27.
    Bogsrud TV, Karantanis D, Lowe VJ. Normal uptake of F-18 FDG in the sublingual gland. Clin Nucl Med 2006;31:50.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. 28.
    Parysow O, Mollerach AM, Jager V, Racioppi S, San Roman J, Gerbaudo VH. Low-dose oral propranolol could reduce brown fat adipose tissue F-18 uptake in patients undergoing PET scans. J Nucl Med 2007;32:351–357.Google Scholar
  29. 29.
    Bogsrud TV, Karantanis D, Nathan MA, Mullan BP, Wiseman GA, Collins DA, Kasperbauer J, Scott E, Strome S, Reading C, Hay ID, Lowe VJ. The value of quantifying 18F-FDG uptake in thyroid nodules found incidentally on whole-body PET-CT. Nucl Med Commun 2007;28:373–381.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. 30.
    Cohen MS, Arslan N, Dehdashti F, Doherty GM, Lairmore TC, Brunt LM, Moley JF. Risk of malignancy in thyroid incidentalomas identified by fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography. Surgery 2001;130:941–946.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. 31.
    Van den Bruel A, Maes A, De Potter T, Mortelmans L, Drijkoningen M, Van Damme B, Delaere P, Bouillon R. Clinical relevance of thyroid fluorodeoxyglucose-whole body positron emission tomography incidentaloma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:1517–1520.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. 32.
    Kang KW, Kim SK, Kang HS, Lee ES, Sim JS, Lee IG, Jeong SY, Kim SW. Prevalence and risk of cancer of focal thyroid incidentaloma identified by 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography for metastasis evaluation and cancer screening in healthy subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:4100–4104.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. 33.
    Gianoukakis AG, Karam M, Cheema A, Cooper JA. Autonomous thyroid nodules visualized by positron emission tomography with 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose: a case report and review of the literature. Thyroid 2003;13:395–399.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. 34.
    Boerner AR, Voth E, Theissen P, Wienhard K, Wagner R, Schicha H. Glucose metabolism of the thyroid in Graves’ disease measured by F-18-fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Thyroid 1998;8:765–772.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. 35.
    Boerner AR, Voth E, Theissen P, Wienhard K, Wagner R, Schicha H.Glucose metabolism of the thyroid in autonomous goiter measured by F-18-FDG-PET. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diab 2000;108:191–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  36. 36.
    Yasuda S, Shohtsu A, Ide M, Takagi S, Takahashi W, Suzuki Y, Horiuchi M. Chronic thyroiditis: diffuse uptake of FDG at PET. Radiology 1998;207:775–778.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. 37.
    Karantanis D, Bogsrud TV, Wiseman GA, Mullan BP, Subramaniam RM, Nathan MA, Peller PJ, Bahn RS, Lowe VJ. Clinical significance of diffusely increased 18F-FDG uptake in the thyroid gland.J Nucl Med 2007;48:896–901.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. 38.
    Moog F, Linke R, Manthey N, Tiling R, Knesewitsch P, Tatsch K, Hahn K. Influence of thyroid-stimulating hormone levels on uptake of FDG in recurrent and metastatic differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Nucl Med 2000;41:1989–1995.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. 39.
    Petrich T, Börner AR, Otto D, Hofmann M, Knapp WH. Influence of rhTSH of [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose uptake by differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Eur J Nucl Med 2002;29:641–647.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  40. 40.
    van Tol KM, Jager PL, Piers DA, Pruim J, de Vries EG, Dullaart RP, Links TP. Better yield of (18)fluorodeoxyglucose-positron emission tomography in patients with metastatic differentiated thyroid carcinoma during thyrotropin stimulation. Thyroid 2002;12:381–387.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  41. 41.
    Chin BB, Patel P, Cohade C, Ewertz M, Wahl R, Ladenson P. Recombinant human thyrotropin stimulation of fluoro-D-glucose positron emission tomography uptake in well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:91–95.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. 42.
    Deichen JT, Schmidt C, Prante O, Maschauer S, Papadopoulos T, Kuwert T. Influence of TSH on uptake of [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose in human thyroid cells in vitro. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2004;31:507–512.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. 43.
    Leboulleux S, Schroeder PR, Schlumberger M, Ladenson PW. The role of PET in follow-up of patients treated for differentiated epithelial thyroid cancers. Nature Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2006;3:112–121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. 44.
    Feine U, Lietzenmayer R, Hanke JP, Wohrle H, Muller-Schauenburg W. [18FDG whole-body PET in differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Flipflop in uptake patterns of 18FDG and 131I] Nuklearmedizin 1995;34:127–134.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. 45.
    Frilling A, Tecklenborg K, Gorges R, Weber F, Clausen M, Broelsch EC. Preoperative diagnostic value of [(18)F] fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in patients with radioiodine-negative recurrent well-differentiated thyroid carcinoma. Ann Surg 2001;234:804–811.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. 46.
    Schoder H, Yeung HW, Gonen M, Kraus D, Larson SM. Head and neck cancer: clinical usefulness and accuracy of PET/CT image fusion. Radiology 2004;231:65–72.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. 47.
    Zoller M, Kohlfuerst S, Igere I, Kresnik E, Gallowitsch H-J, Gomez I, Lind P. Combined PET/CT in the follow-up of differentiated thyroid carcinoma: what is the impact of each modality? Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2006;34:487–495.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. 48.
    Shammas A, Degirmenci B, Mountz JM, McCook BM, Branstetter B, Bencherif BB, Joyce JM, Carty SE, Kuffner HA, Avril N. 18F-FDG PET/CT in patients with suspected recurrent or metastatic well-differentiated thyroid cancer. J Nucl Med 2007;48:221–226.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. 49.
    Nahas Z, Goldenberg D, Fakhry C, Ewertz M, Zeiger M, Ladenson PW, Wahl R, Tufano RP. The role of positron emission tomography/computed tomography in the management of recurrent papillary thyroid carcinoma. Laryngoscope 2006;115:237–243.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  50. 50.
    Seiboth L, Van Nostrand D, Wartofsky L, Ousman Y, Jonklaas J, Butler C, Atkins F, Burman K. Utility of PET/neck MRI digital fusion images in the management of recurrent or persistent thyroid cancer. Thyroid 2008;18:103–111.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. 51.
    Grant CS, Thompson GB, Farley DR, Richards ML, Mullan BP, Hay ID. The value of positron emission tomography in the surgical management of recurrent papillary thyroid carcinoma. World J Surg 2008;32:708–715.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. 52.
    Saab G, Driedger AA, Pavlosky W, McDonald T, Wong CY, Urbain JL. Thyroid-stimulating hormone-stimulated fused positron emission tomography/computed tomography in the evaluation of recurrence in 131I-negative papillary thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 2006;16:267–272.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. 53.
    Iwata M, Kasagi K, Misaki T, Matsumoto K, Iida Y, Ishimori T, Nakamoto Y, Higashi T, Saga T, Konishi J. Comparison of whole-body 18F-FDG PET, 99mTc-MIBI SPET, and post-therapeutic 131I-Na scintigraphy in the detection of metastatic thyroid cancer. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imag 2004;31:491–498.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  54. 54.
    Hung MC, Wu HS, Kao CH, Chen WK, Changlai SP. F18-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in detecting metastatic papillary thyroid carcinoma with elevated human serum thyroglobulin levels but negative I-131 whole body scan. Endocr Res 2003;29:169–175.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  55. 55.
    Dietlein M, Scheidhauer K, Voth E, Theissen P, Schicha H. Fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography and iodine-131 whole-body scintigraphy in the follow-up of differentiated thyroid cancer. Eur J Nucl Med 1997;24:1342–1348.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  56. 56.
    Palmedo H, Bucerius J, Joe A, Strunk H, Hortling N, Meyka S, Roedel R, Wolff M, Wardelmann E, Biersack HJ, Jaeger U. Integrated PET/CT in differentiated thyroid cancer: diagnostic accuracy and impact on patient management. J Nucl Med 2006;47:616–624.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. 57.
    Wang W, Larson SM, Fazzari M, Tickoo SK, Kolbert K, Sgouros G, Yeung H, Macapinlac H, Rosai J, Robbins RJ. Prognostic value of [18F]fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomographic scanning in patients with thyroid cancer. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000;85:1107–1113.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. 58.
    Robbins RJ, Wan Q, Grewal RK, Reibke R, Gonen M, Strauss W, Tuttle RM, Drucker W, Larson SM. Real-time prognosis for metastatic thyroid carcinoma based on 2-[18F]Fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose-positron emission tomography scanning. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006;91:498–505.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. 59.
    Wang W, Larson SM, Tuttle RM, Kalaigian H, Kolbert K, Sonenberg M, Robbins RJ. Resistance of [18f]-fluorodeoxyglucose-avid metastatic thyroid cancer lesions to treatment with high-dose radioactive iodine. Thyroid 2001;11:1169–1175.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. 60.
    Bogsrud TV Karantanis D, Nathan MA, Mullan BP, Wiseman GA, Hay ID, Kasperbauer JL, Reading CC, Lowe VJ. FDG PET in the management of patients with well differentiated thyroid carcinoma and positive thyroglobulin autoantibodies [abstract 14]. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imag 2007;34(Suppl 2):S122.Google Scholar
  61. 61.
    Stojadinovic A, Hoos A, Ghossein RA, Hürthle cell carcinoma: a 60 year experience. Ann Surg Oncol 2002;9:197–203.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. 62.
    Plotkin M, Hautzel H, Krause BJ, Schmidt D, Larisch R, Mottaghy FM, Boemer AR, Herzog H, Vosberg H, Muller-Gartner HW. Implication of 2-18fluor-2-deoxyglucose, positron emission tomography in the follow-up of Hürthle cell thyroid cancer. Thyroid 2002;12:155–1561.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. 63.
    Grünwald F, Kälicke Th, Feine U, Lietzenmayer R, Scheidhauer K, Dietlein M, Schober O, Lerch H, Brandt-Mainz K, Burchert W, Hiltermann G, Cremerius U, Biersack HJ. Fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in thyroid cancer: results of a multicenter study. Eur J Nucl Med 1999;26:1547–1552.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. 64.
    Lowe VJ, Mullan BP, Hay ID, McIver B, Kasperbauer JL. 18F-FDG PET of patients with Hürthle cell carcinoma. J Nucl Med 2003;44:1402–1406.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. 65.
    Pryma DA, Schröder H, Gönen M, Robbins RJ, Larson SM, Yeung HWD. Diagnostic accuracy and prognostic value of 18F-FDG PET in Hürthle cell thyroid cancer patients. J Nucl Med 2006;47:1260–1266.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  66. 66.
    Giraudet, AL, Vanel D, Leboulleux S, Aupérin A, Dromain C, Chami L, Tovo NN, Lumbroso J, Lassau N, Bonniaud G, Hartl D, Travagli J-P, Baudin E, Schlumberger M. Imaging medullary thyroid carcinoma with persistent elevated calcitonin levels. J Endocrinol Metabol 2007;92:4185–4190.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  67. 67.
    Diehl M, Risse JH, Brandt-Mainz K, Dietlein M, Bohuslavizki KH, Matheja P, Lange H, Bredow J, Korber C, Grunwald F. Fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in medullary thyroid cancer: results of a multicentre study. Eur J Nucl Med 2001;28:1671–1676.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. 68.
    de Groot JW, Links TP, Jager PL, Kahraman T, Plukker JT. Impact of 18F-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) in patients with biochemical evidence of recurrent or residual medullary thyroid cancer. Ann Surg Oncol 2004;11:786–794.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  69. 69.
    Brandt-Mainz K, Muller SP, Gorges R, Saller B, Bockisch A. The value of fluorine-18 fluorodeoxyglucose PET in patients with medullary thyroid cancer. Eur J Nucl Med 2000;27:490–496.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. 70.
    Szakall S Jr, Esik O, Bajzik G, Repa I, Dabasi G, Sinkovics I, Agoston P, Tron L. 18F-FDG PET detection of lymph node metastases in medullary thyroid carcinoma. J Nucl Med 2002;43:66–71.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. 71.
    Ong SC, Schröder H, Patel SG, Tabangay-Lim IM, Doddamane I, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of 18F-FDG PET in restaging patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma and elevated calcitonin levels.J Nucl Med 2007;48:501–507.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  72. 72.
    Öksüz MÖ, Aschoff P, Kemke B, Rauch D, Zhernosekov K, et al. 68Ga-DOTATOC-PET/CT versus 18F-FDG-PET/CT: the flip-flop-phenomenon in the imaging of somatostatin-receptor expressing neuroendocrine tumors [abstract]. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Image 2005;32:S54.Google Scholar
  73. 73.
    Koukouraki S, Strauss LG, Georgoulias V, Eisenhut M, Haberkorn U, Dimitrakopoulou-Strauss A. Comparison of the pharmacokinetics of 68Ga-DOTATOC and [18F]FDG in patients with metastatic neuroendocrine tumours scheduled for 90Y-DOTATOC therapy. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2006;33:1115–22.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. 74.
    Hoegerle S, Altehoefer C, Ghanem N, Brink I, Moser E, Nitzsche E. 18F-DOPA positron emission tomography for tumour detection in patients with medullary thyroid carcinoma and elevated calcitonin levels. Eur J Nucl Med 2001;28:64–71.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  75. 75.
    Gourgiotis L, Sarlis N, Reynolds J, VanWaes C, Merino M, Pacak K. Localization of medullary thyroid carcinoma metastasis in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A patient by 6-[18F]-fluorodopamine positron emission tomography. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:637–641.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  76. 76.
    Beuthien-Baumann B, Strumpf A, Zessin J, Bredow J, Kotzerke J. Diagnostic impact of PET with (18)F-FDG, (18)F-DOPA and 3-O-methyl-6-[(18)F]-fluoro-DOPA in recurrent or metastatic medullary thyroid carcinoma. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2007;34:1604–1609.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. 77.
    Ara C, Shaha AR. Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma: biology, pathogenesis, prognostic factors, and treatment. Ann Surg Oncol 2006;13:453–464.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  78. 78.
    Comett WR, Shama AK, Day TA, Richardson MS, Hoda RS, van Heerden JA, Femandes JK. Anaplastic thyroid carcinoma: an overview. Curr Oncol Rep 2007;9:152–158.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  79. 79.
    Bogsrud TV, Karantanis D, Nathan MA, Mullan BP, Wiseman GA, Kasperbauer JL, Reading CC, Hay ID, Lowe VJ. 18F-FDG PET in the management of patients with anaplastic thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid 2008;18(7):713–719.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of Diagnostic Imaging, Division of Nuclear MedicineUniversity Clinic, The Norwegian Radium Hospital, Rikshospitalet University HospitalOsloNorway

Personalised recommendations