Abstract
Military static-line parachuting is a highly tactical and hazardous activity, with a well-documented injury risk. Due to the high impact forces and rapid rate of loading when a parachutist lands, injuries most frequently occur to the lower limbs and the trunk/spine, with ankle injuries accounting for between 30 and 60 % of all parachuting injuries. Although military static-line parachuting injuries can be sustained at any time between the paratrooper attempting to leave the aircraft until they have landed and removed their harness, most injuries occur on landing. Throughout the world, various landing techniques are taught to paratroopers to reduce the risk of injury, by enabling parachute landing forces to be more evenly distributed over the body. In this chapter, we review research associated with static-line military parachuting injuries, focusing on injuries that occur during high-impact landings. We summarize literature pertaining to strategies for military paratroopers to land safely upon ground contact, especially when performing the parachute fall landing technique. Recommendations for future research in this field are provided, particularly in relation to the parachute fall landing technique and training methods. Ultimately, any changes to current practice in landing technique, how it is taught, and whether protective equipment is introduced, should be monitored in well controlled, prospective studies, with the statistical design accounting for the interaction between the variables, to determine the effect of these factors on injury rates and paratrooper performance. This will ensure that evidence-based guidelines can be developed, particularly in relation to landing technique and how this is trained, in order to minimize injuries associated with landings during military static-line parachuting in subsequent training and tactical operations.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsReferences
Delbridge, A., Bernard, J.R.L.: The Macquarie Concise Dictionary, 3rd edn. The Macquarie Library, Sydney (2000)
Ellitsgaard, N., Ellitsgaard, V.C.: Injury producing factors in sport parachuting. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 29(4), 405–409 (1989)
Knapik, J.J., et al.: Risk factors for injuries during military parachuting. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 74(7), 768–774 (2003)
Ellitsgaard, N.: Parachuting injuries: a study of 110,000 sports jumps. Br. J. Sports Med. 21(1), 13–17 (1987)
Knapik, J.J., et al.: Military parachuting injuries, associated events, and injury risk factors. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 82(8), 797–804 (2011)
Hughes, C.D., Weinrauch, P.C.L.: Military static line parachute injuries in an Australian Commando Battalion. ANZ J. Surg. 78(10), 848–852 (2008)
Neves, E.B., de Souza, M.N., de Almeida, R.M.V.R.: Military parachuting injuries in Brazil. Injury 40(8), 897–900 (2009)
Ball, V.L., et al.: Traumatic injury patterns associated with static line parachuting. Wilderness Environ. Med. 25(1), 89–93 (2014)
Bricknell, M.C.M., Craig, S.C.: Military parachuting injuries: Literature review. Occup. Med. 49(1), 17–26 (1999)
Bricknell, M.C.M., Amoroso, P.J., Yore, M.M.: What is the risk associated with being a qualified military parachutist? Occup. Med. 49(3), 139–145 (1999)
Baldwin, C.C.: Parachuting injuries and type of parachute in a reserve rescue unit. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 59(8), 780–782 (1988)
Kragh Jr, J.F., et al.: Parachuting injuries among army rangers: a prospective survey of an elite airborne battalion. Mil. Med. 161(7), 416–419 (1996)
Craig, S.C., et al.: Parachuting injuries during operation Royal Dragon, big drop III, Fort Bragg, North Carolina, May 15/16 1996. Mil. Med. 164(1), 41–43 (1999)
Schmidt, M.D., Sulsky, S.I., Amoroso, P.J.: Effectiveness of an outside-the-boot ankle brace in reducing parachuting related ankle injuries. Inj. Prev. 11(3), 163–168 (2005)
Guo, W.J., et al.: Military parachuting injuries among male and female cadet pilots: a prospective study of 59,932 jumps. In: Applied Mechanics and Materials, pp. 837–841 (2014)
Guo, W.J., et al.: Analysis of risk factors for military parachuting injuries among Chinese air force cadet pilots. In: 3rd international conference on applied mechanics, materials and manufacturing, ICAMMM 2013, pp. 1778–1781. Dalian (2013)
Davison, D.J.: A review of parachuting injuries. Injury 21(5), 314–316 (1990)
Ekeland, A.: Injuries in military parachuting: a prospective study of 4499 jumps. Injury 28(3), 219–222 (1997)
Glorioso Jr, J.E., Batts, K.B., Ward, W.S.: Military free fall training injuries. Mil. Med. 164(7), 526–530 (1999)
Whitting, J.W., et al.: Parachute landing fall characteristics at three realistic vertical descent velocities. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 78(12), 1135–1142 (2007)
Essex-Lopresti, P.: The hazards of parachuting. Br. J. Surg. 34, 1–13 (1946)
Knapik, J.J., et al.: Parachute ankle brace and extrinsic injury risk factors during parachuting. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 79(4), 408–415 (2008)
Jaffrey, M.A., Steele, J.R.: Landings during 2004 basic parachute courses: common technique faults and injuries. Australian Government, Department of Defence, Defence Science and Technology Organisation, Melbourne (2007)
Lowdon, I.M.R., Wetherill, M.H.: Parachuting injuries during training descents. Injury 20(5), 257–258 (1989)
Ellitsgaard, N., Warburg, F.: Movements causing ankle fractures in parachuting. Br. J. Sports Med. 23(1), 27–29 (1989)
Dhar, D.: Retrospective study of injuries in military parachuting. Med. J. Armed Forces India 63(4), 353–355 (2007)
Amoroso, P.J., et al.: Braced for impact: reducing military paratroopers’ ankle sprains using outside-the-boot braces. J. Trauma Inj. Infection and Critical Care 45(3), 575–580 (1998)
Whitting, J.W., et al.: Does foot pitch at ground contact affect parachute landing technique? Mil. Med. 174(8), 832–837 (2009)
Craig, S.C., Lee, T.: Attention to detail: injuries at altitude among U.S. Army Military static line parachutists. Mil. Med. 165(4), 268–271 (2000)
Amoroso, P.J., Bell, N.S., Jones, B.H.: Injury among female and male army parachutists. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 68(11), 1006–1011 (1997)
Knapik, J.J., et al.: Injury risk factors in parachuting and acceptability of the parachute ankle brace. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 79(7), 689–694 (2008)
Pirson, J., Pirlot, M.: A study of the influence of body weight and height on military parachute landing injuries. Mil. Med. 155(8), 383–385 (1990)
Crowell III, H.P., et al.: Lower extremity assistance for parachutists (LEAP) Program: quantification of the biomechanics of the parachute landing fall and implications for a device to prevent injuries. Aberdeen Proving Ground, U.S. Army Research Laboratory (1995)
McNitt-Gray, J.L., Yokoi, T., Millward, C.: Landing strategy adjustments made by female gymnasts in response to drop height and mat composition. J. Appl. Biomech. 9(3), 173–190 (1993)
Santello, M., McDonagh, M.J.N.: The control of timing and amplitude of EMG activity in landing movements in humans. Exp. Physiol. 83(6), 857–874 (1998)
Walshe, A.D., Wilson, G.J.: The influence of musculotendinous stiffness on drop jump performance. Can. J. Appl. Physiol. 22(2), 117–132 (1997)
DeVita, P., Skelly, W.A.: Effect of landing stiffness on joint kinetics and energetics in the lower extremity. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24(1), 108–115 (1992)
McNitt-Gray, J.L.: Kinetics of the lower extremities during drop landings from three heights. J. Biomech. 26(9), 1037–1046 (1993)
Butler, R.J., Crowell Iii, H.P., Davis, I.M.: Lower extremity stiffness: Implications for performance and injury. Clin. Biomech. 18(6), 511–517 (2003)
Farley, C.T., Morgenroth, D.C.: Leg stiffness primarily depends on ankle stiffness during human hopping. J. Biomech. 32(3), 267–273 (1999)
Laffaye, G., Bardy, B.G., Durey, A.: Leg stiffness and expertise in men jumping. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 37(4), 536–543 (2005)
Derrick, T.R., Caldwell, G.E., Hamill, J.: Modeling the stiffness characteristics of the human body while running with various stride lengths. J. Appl. Biomech. 16(1), 36–51 (2000)
Liu, W., Nigg, B.M.: A mechanical model to determine the influence of masses and mass distribution on the impact force during running. J. Biomech. 33(2), 219–224 (2000)
Alexander, R.M.: Modelling approaches in biomechanics. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. 358(1437), 1429–1435 (2003)
Whittlesey, S.N., Hamill, J.: Chapter 10: computer simulation of human movement, in research methods in biomechanics. In Robertson, D.G.E. et al. (ed.) Human Kinetics. Champaign, IL, U.S (2014)
Zhang, S.N., Bates, B.T., Dufek, J.S.: Contributions of lower extremity joints to energy dissipation during landings. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 32(4), 812–819 (2000)
Pirson, J., Verbiest, E.: A study of some factors influencing military parachute landing injuries. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 56(6), 564–567 (1985)
Farrow, G.B.: Military static line parachute injuries. Aust. N. Z. J. Surg. 62(3), 209–214 (1992)
Henderson, J.M., Hunter, S.C., Berry, W.J.: The biomechanics of the knee during the parachute landing fall. Mil. Med. 158(12), 810–816 (1993)
Ciccone, R., Richman, R.M.: The mechanism of injury and the distribution of three thousand fractures and dislocations caused by parachute jumps. J. Bone Jt. Surg. 30, 77–97 (1948)
Hoffman, J.R., Liebermann, D., Gusis, A.: Relationship of leg strength and power to ground reaction forces, in both experienced and novice jump trained personnel. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 68(8), 710–714 (1997)
Salai, M., et al.: Lower limb injuries in parachuting. Int. J. Sports Med. 4(4), 223–225 (1983)
Niu, W., Fan, Y.: Terrain stiffness and ankle biomechanics during simulated half-squat parachute landing. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 84(12), 1262–1267 (2013)
Li, Y., et al.: The effect of landing surface on the plantar kinetics of Chinese paratroopers using half-squat landing. J. Sports Sci. Med. 12(3), 409–413 (2013)
Caster, B.L., Bates, B.T.: The assessment of mechanical and neuromuscular response strategies during landing. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 27(5), 736–744 (1995)
Bar-Dayan, Y., Bar-Dayan, Y., Shemer, J.: Parachuting injuries: a retrospective study of 43,542 military jumps. Mil. Med. 163(1), 1–2 (1998)
Oggero, E., et al.: The mechanics of drop landing on a flat surface—a preliminary study. Biomed. Sci. Instrum. 33, 53–58 (1997)
Self, B.P., Paine, D.: Ankle biomechanics during four landing techniques. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 33(8), 1338–1344 (2001)
Seegmiller, J.G., McCaw, S.T.: Ground reaction forces among gymnasts and recreational athletes in drop landings. J. Athletic Training 38(4), 311–314 (2003)
Luippold, R.S., Sulsky, S.I., Amoroso, P.J.: Effectiveness of an external ankle brace in reducing parachuting-related ankle injuries. Inj. Prev. 17(1), 58–61 (2011)
Knapik, J.J., et al.: Systematic review of the parachute ankle brace injury risk reduction and cost effectiveness. Am. J. Prev. Med. 38(1), S182–S188 (2010)
Gladh, K., et al.: Decelerations and muscle responses during parachute opening shock. Aviat. Space Environ. Med. 84(11), 1205–1210 (2013)
Ivins, B.J., et al.: Traumatic brain injury risk while parachuting: comparison of the personnel armor system for ground troops helmet and the advanced combat helmet. Mil. Med. 173(12), 1168–1172 (2008)
Arampatzis, A., Brüggemann, G.P., Klapsing, G.M.: A three-dimensional shank-foot model to determine the foot motion during landings. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 34(1), 130–138 (2002)
Chu, Y., et al.: Air assault soldiers demonstrate more dangerous landing biomechanics when visual input is removed. Mil. Med. 177(1), 41–47 (2012)
Dufek, J.S., Bates, B.T.: The evaluation and prediction of impact forces during landings. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 22(3), 370–377 (1990)
Liebermann, D.G., Hoffman, J.R.: Timing of preparatory landing responses as a function of availability of optic flow information. J. Electromyogr. Kinesiol. 15(1), 120–130 (2005)
McNitt-Gray, J.L., Yokoi, T., Millward, C.: Landing strategies used by gymnasts on different surfaces. J. Appl. Biomech. 10, 237–252 (1994)
McNitt-Gray, J.L., et al.: Mechanical demand and multijoint control during landing depend on orientation of the body segments relative to the reaction force. J. Biomech. 34(11), 1471–1482 (2001)
Santello, M., McDonagh, M.J.N., Challis, J.H.: Visual and non-visual control of landing movements in humans. J. Physiol. 537(1), 313–327 (2001)
Whitting, J.W., et al.: Dorsiflexion capacity affects Achilles tendon loading during drop landings. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 43(4), 706–713 (2011)
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Sheridan Gho for the artwork in Fig. 3.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Steele, J.R., Mickle, K.J., Whitting, J.W. (2015). Preventing Injuries Associated with Military Static-line Parachuting Landings. In: Gefen, A., Epstein, Y. (eds) The Mechanobiology and Mechanophysiology of Military-Related Injuries. Studies in Mechanobiology, Tissue Engineering and Biomaterials, vol 19. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/8415_2015_184
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/8415_2015_184
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-33010-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-33012-9
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)