Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus is responsible for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), an infectious disease that consists a serious concern worldwide for more than three decades. By the end of 2013 UNAIDS estimated that there were 35 million (range 33.2–37.2 million) adults and children living with HIV/AIDS worldwide. Despite the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), the need for new anti-HIV agents is extremely high because the existing medicines do not provide the complete curation and exhibit serious side effects, and their application leads to the appearance of resistant strains. This chapter explores the medicinal chemistry efforts that gave rise to currently launched drugs as well as investigational anti-HIV agents. Currently used and studied molecular targets of antiretrovirals and the main classes of HIV-1 inhibitors are presented. Among the future prospects, we discuss the efforts directed to overcome the latent HIV infection, utilization of natural products as potential anti-HIV agents, recent trends on development of biologics as potential anti-HIV medicines, and application of computer-aided methods in the discovery of new anti-HIV drugs.
References
Zhu T, Korber BT, Nahmias AJ, Hooper E, Sharp PM, Ho DD (1998) An African HIV-1 sequence from 1959 and implications for the origin of the epidemic. Nature 391(6667):594–597
Worobey M, Gemmel M, Teuwen DE, Haselkorn T, Kunstman K, Bunce M, Muyembe JJ, Kabongo JM, Kalengayi RM, Van Marck E, Gilbert MT, Wolinsky SM (2008) Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature 455(7213):661–664
Frøland SS, Jenum P, Lindboe CF, Wefring KW, Linnestad PJ, Böhmer T (1988) HIV-1 infection in Norwegian family before 1970. Lancet 1(8598):1344–1345
Worobey M, Telfer P, Souquière S, Hunter M, Coleman CA, Metzger MJ, Reed P, Makuwa M, Hearn G, Honarvar S, Roques P, Apetrei C, Kazanji M, Marx PA (2010) Island biogeography reveals the deep history of SIV. Science 329(5998):1487
Bailes E, Gao F, Bibollet-Ruche F, Courgnaud V, Peeters M, Marx PA, Hahn BH, Sharp PM (2003) Hybrid origin of SIV in chimpanzees. Science 300(5626):1713
Gao G, Bailes E, Robertson DL, Chen Y, Rodenburg CM, Michael SF, Cummins LB, Arthur LO, Peeters M, Shaw GM, Sharp PM, Hahn BH (1999) Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes. Nature 397:436–444
Lemey P, Pybus OG, Wang B, Saksena NK, Salemi M, Vandamme AM (2003) Tracing the origin and history of the HIV-2 epidemic. Proc Natl Acad Sci 100:6588–6592
Global report of the Joint United Nations Program for AIDS (UNAIDS) (2013) http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/UNAIDS_Global_Report_2013_en_1.pdf
De Clercq E (2013) The nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, and protease inhibitors in the treatment of HIV infections (AIDS). Adv Pharmacol 67:317–358
Flexner C, Saag M (2013) The antiretroviral drug pipeline: prospects and implications for future treatment research. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 8(6):572–578
McGowan I (2014) An overview of antiretroviral pre-exposure prophylaxis of HIV infection. Am J Reprod Immunol 71(6):624–630
Assaes CP, Sáez-Cirión A (2014) HIV cure research: advances and prospects. Virology 454–455:340–352
De Clercq E (2013) A cutting-edge view on the current state of antiviral drug development. Med Res Rev 33(6):1249–1277
Maga G, Veljkovic N, Crespan E, Spadari S, Prljic J, Perovic V, Glisic S, Veljkovic V (2013) New in silico and conventional in vitro approaches to advance HIV drug discovery and design. Expert Opin Drug Discovery 8(1):83–92
Métifiot M, Marchand C, Pommier Y (2013) HIV integrase inhibitors: 20-year landmark and challenges. Adv Pharmacol 67:75–105
Yu F, Lu L, Du L, Zhu X, Debnath AK, Jiang S (2013) Approaches for identification of HIV-1 entry inhibitors targeting gp41 pocket. Viruses 5(1):127–149
Lagunin AA, Filimonov DA, Gloriozova TA, Tarasova OA, Zakharov AV, Guasch L, Nicklaus MC, Poroikov VV (2013) Virtual screening for potential substances for the prophylaxis of HIV infection in libraries of commercially available organic compounds. Pharm Chem J 47(7):343–360
Lange JM, Ananworanich J (2014) The discovery and development of antiretroviral agents. Antivir Ther 19(Suppl 3):5–14
Veselovsky AV, Zharkova MS, Poroikov VV, Nicklaus MC (2014) Computer-aided design and discovery of protein-protein interaction inhibitors as agents for anti-HIV therapy. SAR QSAR Environ Res 25(6):457–471
Di Santo R (2014) Inhibiting the HIV integration process: past, present, and the future. J Med Chem 57(3):539–566. Erratum in: J Med Chem. 2014 Jul 24; 57(14):6273
Tintori C, Brai A, Fallacara AL, Fazi R, Schenone S, Botta M (2014) Protein-protein interactions and human cellular cofactors as new targets for HIV therapy. Curr Opin Pharmacol 18:1–8
Han YS, Xiao WL, Xu H, Kramer VG, Quan Y, Mesplède T, Oliveira M, Colby-Germinario SP, Sun HD, Wainberg MA (2015) Identification of a dibenzocyclooctadiene lignan as a HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor. Antivir Chem Chemother 24(1):28–38
Patel RV, Park SW (2015) Pyrroloaryls and pyrroloheteroaryls: inhibitors of the HIV fusion/attachment, reverse transcriptase and integrase. Bioorg Med Chem pii: S0968-0896(15)00510-6. doi:10.1016/j.bmc.2015.06.016. [Epub ahead of print] Review. PubMed
Chiu IM, Yaniv A, Dahlberg JE, Gazit A, Skuntz SF, Tronick SR, Aaronson SA (1985) Nucleotide sequence evidence for relationship of AIDS retrovirus to lentiviruses. Nature 317(6035):366–3688
Wain-Hobson S, Alizon M, Montagnier L (1985) Relationship of AIDS to other retroviruses. Nature 313(6005):743
Vogt PK (1997) Historical introduction to the general properties of retroviruses. In: Coffin JM, Hughes SH, Varmus HE (eds) Retroviruses. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, pp 1–27
Weiss RA (1993) Cellular receptors and viral glycoproteins involved in retrovirus entry. In: Levy JA (ed) The retroviridae, vol 2. Plenum, New York, pp 1–108
Miceli MC, Parnes JR (1993) Role of CD4 and CD8 in T cell activation and differentiation. Adv Immunol 53:59–122
Choe H, Farzan M, Sun Y, Sullivan N, Rollins B, Ponath PD, Wu L, Mackay CR, LaRosa G, Newman W, Gerard N, Gerard C, Sodroski J (1996) The beta-chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR5 facilitate infection by primary HIV-1 isolates. Cell 85(7):1135–1148
Deng H, Liu R, Ellmeier W, Choe S, Unutmaz D, Burkhart M, Di Marzio P, Marmon S, Sutton RE, Hill CM, Davis CB, Peiper SC, Schall TJ, Littman DR, Landau NR (1996) Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 381(6584):661–6666
Doranz BJ, Rucker J, Yi Y, Smyth RJ, Samson M, Peiper SC, Parmentier M, Collman RG, Doms RW (1996) A dual-tropic primary HIV-1 isolate that uses fusin and the beta-chemokine receptors CKR-5, CKR-3, and CKR-2b as fusion cofactors. Cell 85(7):1149–1158
Hoffman TL, Stephens EB, Narayan O, Doms RW (1998) HIV type I envelope determinants for use of the CCR2b, CCR3, STRL33, and APJ coreceptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95(19):11360–11365
Scholten DJ, Canals M, Maussang D, Roumen L, Smit MJ, Wijtmans M, de Graaf C, Vischer HF, Leurs R (2012) Pharmacological modulation of chemokine receptor function. Br J Pharmacol 165(6):1617–1643
Zhang L, He T, Huang Y, Chen Z, Guo Y, Wu S, Kunstman KJ, Brown RC, Phair JP, Neumann AU, Ho DD, Wolinsky SM (1998) Chemokine co-receptor usage by diverse primary isolates of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 72(11):9307–9312
Eckert DM, Kim PS (2001) Mechanisms of viral membrane fusion and its inhibition. Annu Rev Biochem 70:777–810
Chun TW, Carruth L, Finzi D, Shen X, Di Giuseppe JA, Taylor H, Hermankova M, Chadwick K, Margolick J, Quinn TC, Kuo YH, Brookmeyer R, Zeiger MA, Barditch-Crovo P, Siliciano RF (1997) Quantification of latent tissue reservoirs and total body viral load in HIV-1 infection. Nature 387:183–188
Whittle H, Morris J, Todd J, Corrah T, Sabally S, Bangali J, Ngom PT, Rolfe M, Wilkins A (1994) HIV-2-infected patients survive longer than HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 8:1617–1620
Divita G, Rittinger K, Geourjon C, Deleage G, Goody RS (1995) Dimerization kinetics of HIV-1 and HIV-2 reverse transcriptase: a two step process. J Mol Biol 245:508–521
Barat C, Lullien V, Schatz O, Keith G, Nugeyre MT, Gruninger-Leitch F, Barre-Sinoussi F, Grice L, Darlix JL (1989) HIV-1 reverse transcriptase specifically interacts with the anticodon domain of its cognate primer tRNA. EMBO J 8(32):3279–3285
Sarih-Cottin L, Bordier B, Musier-Forsyth K, Andreola M-L, Barr PJ, Litvak S (1992) Preferential interaction of HIV RT with two regions of primer tRNALys3 as evidenced by footprinting studies and inhibition with synthetic oligoribonudeotides. J Mol Biol 226:1–6
Litvak LE, Andderola M-L, Nevinsky GA, Sarih-Cofttin L, Litvax S (1994) The reverse transcriptase of HIV-1: from enzyrnology to therapeutic intervention Laboratoire de Replication et Expression des Genomes eucaryotes et Retroviraux, institut Biochimie Cellulaire, CNRS5 33077 Bordeaux cedex, France, vol 8. pp 497–502.8
Tu X, Das K, Han Q, Bauman JD, Clark AD, Hou X, Frenkel YV, Gaffney BL, Jones RA, Boyer PL, Hughes SH, Sarafianos SG, Arnold E (2010) Structural basis of HIV-1 resistance to AZT by excision. Nat Struct Mol Biol 17:1202
Madej T, Lanczycki CJ, Zhang D, Thiessen PA, Geer RC, Marchler-Bauer A, Bryant SH (2014) MMDB and VAST+: tracking structural similarities between macromolecular complexes. Nucleic Acids Res 42(Database issue):D297–D303
Kohlstaedt LA, Wang J, Friedman JM, Rice PA, Steitz TA (1992) Crystal structure at 3.5 A resolution of HIV-1 RT complexed with an inhibitor. Science 256:1783–1790
Huang H, Chopra R, Verdine GL, Harrison SC (1998) Structure of a covalently trapped catalytic complex of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase: implications for drug resistance. Science 28:1669–1675
Arts EJ, Wainberg MA (1996) Mechanisms of nucleoside analog antiviral activity and resistance during human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcription. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 40:527–540
Squires KE (2001) An introduction to nucleoside and nucleotide analogues. Antivir Ther 6(Suppl 3):1–14
Prasad VR, Goff SP (1990) Structure-function studies of HIV reverse transcriptase. Ann N Y Acad Sci 616:11–21
St Clair MH, Richards CA, Spector T et al (1987) 3′-Azido-3′-deoxythymidine triphosphate as an inhibitor and substrate of purified human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31:1972–1977
Lewis W, Gonzalez B, Chomyn A, Papoian T (1992) Zidovudine induces molecular, biochemical, and ultrastructural changes in rat skeletal muscle mitochondria. J Clin Invest 89:1354–1360
Lewis W, Dalakas MC (1995) Mitochondrial toxicity of antiviral drugs. Nat Med 1:417–422
Schambelan M, Benson CA, Carr A, Currier JS, Dube P, Gerber JG, Grinspoon SK, Saag MS (2002) Management of metabolic complications associated with antiretroviral therapy for HIV-1 infection: recommendations of an International AIDS Society-USA panel. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 31:257–275
Falco V, Rodriguez D, Ribera E, Martinez E, Miro JM, Domingo P, Diazaraque R, Jose RA, Gonzalez-Garcia JJ, Montero F, Sanchezl L, Pathissa A (2002) Severe nucleoside-associated lactic acidosis in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: report of 12 cases and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 34:838–846
Miller KD, Cameron M, Wood LV, Dalakas MC, Kovacs JA (2000) Lactic acidosis and hepatic steatosis associated with use of stavudine: report of four cases. Ann Intern Med 133:192–196
Bissuel F, Bruneel F, Habersetzer F et al (1994) Fulminant hepatitis with severe lactate acidosis in HIV-infected patients on didanosine therapy. J Intern Med 235:367–371
Chattha G, Arieff AI, Cummings C, Tierney LM Jr (1993) Lactic acidosis complicating the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 118:37–39
Smerdon SJ, Jager J, Wang J, Kohlstaedt LA, Chirino AJ, Friedman JM, Rice PA, Steitz TA (1994) Structure of the binding site for nonnucleoside inhibitors of the reverse transcriptase of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91(9):3911–3915
Pitta E, Crespan E, Geronikaki A, Maga G, Samuele A (2010) Novel thiazolidinone derivatives with an uncommon mechanism of inhibition towards HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Lett Drug Des Discovery 7(4):228–234
Das K, Lewi PJ, Hughes SH, Arnold E (2005) Crystallography and the design of anti-AIDS drugs: conformational flexibility and positional adaptability are important in the design of non-nucleoside HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 88:209–231
Hsiou Y, Das K, Ding J, Clark AD Jr, Kleim JP, Rosner M, Winkler I, Riess G, Hughes SH, Arnold E (1998) Structures of Tyr188Leu mutant and wild-type HIV-1 reverse transcriptase complexed with the non-nucleoside inhibitor HBY 097: inhibitor flexibility is a useful design feature for reducing drug resistance. J Mol Biol 284(2):313–323
Das K, Clark AD Jr, Lewi PJ, Heeres J, De Jonge MR, Koymans LM, Vinkers HM, Daeyaert F, Ludovici DW, Kukla MJ, De Corte B, Kavash RW, Ho CY, Ye H, Lichtenstein MA, Andries K, Pauwels R, De Bethune MP, Boyer PL, Clark P, Hughes SH, Janssen PA, Arnold E (2004) Roles of conformational and positional adaptability in structure-based design of TMC125-R165335 (etravirine) and related nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors that are highly potent and effective against wild-type and drug resistant HIV-1 variants. J Med Chem 47(10):2550–2560
Janssen PA, Lewi PJ, Arnold E, Daeyaert F, de Jonge M, Heeres J, Koymans L, Vinkers M, Guillemont J, Pasquier E, Kukla M, Ludovici D, Andries K, de Bethune MP, Pauwels R, Das K, Clark AD Jr, Frenkel YV, Hughes SH, Medaer B, De Knaep F, Bohets H, De Clerck F, Lampo A, Williams P, Stoffels P (2005) In search of a novel anti-HIV drug: multidisciplinary coordination in the discovery of 4-[[4-[[4-[(1E)-2-cyanoethenyl]-2,6-dimethylphenyl]amino]-2- pyrimidinyl]-amino]benzonitrile (R278474, rilpivirine). J Med Chem 48(6):1901–1909
Ren J, Milton J, Weaver KL, Short SA, Stuart DI, Stammers DK (2000) Structural basis for the resilience of efavirenz (DMP-266) to drug resistance mutations in HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Struct Fold Des 8:1089
Ren J, Nichols CE, Chamberlain PP, Weaver KL, Short SA, Stammers DK (2004) Crystal structures of HIV-1 reverse transcriptases mutated at codons 100, 106 and 108 and mechanisms of resistance to non-nucleoside inhibitors. J Mol Biol 336:569–579
Monforte AM, Logoteta P, Ferro S, De Luca L, Iraci N, Maga G, Clercq ED, Pannecouque C, Chimirri A (2009) Design, synthesis, and structure-activity relationships of 1,3-dihydrobenzimidazol-2-one analogues as anti-HIV agents. Bioorg Med Chem 17(16):5962–5967
Pauwels R, Andries K, Debyser Z, Van Daele P, Schols D, Stoffels P, De Vreese K, Woestenborghs R, Vandamme AM, Janssen CG (1993) Potent and highly selective human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) inhibition by a series of alpha-anilinophenylacetamide derivatives targeted at HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90(5):1711–1715
Balzarini J, Orzeszko-Krzesińska B, Maurin JK, Orzeszko A (2009) Synthesis and anti-HIV studies of 2-and 3-adamantyl-substituted thiazolidin-4-ones. Eur J Med Chem 44:303–311
Pauwels R, Andries K, Desmyter J, Schols D, Kukla MJ, Breslin HJ, Raeymaeckers A, Van Gelder J, Woestenborghs R, Heykants J, Schellekens K, Janssen M, De Clerq E, Janssen PAJ (1990) Potent and selective inhibition of HIV-1 replication in vitro by a novel series of TIBO derivatives. Nature 343(6257):470–474
Althaus IW, Chou JJ, Gonzales AJ, Deibel MR, Chou KC, Kezdy FJ, Romero DL, Thomas RC, Aristoff PA, Tarpley WG et al (1994) Kinetic studies with the non-nucleoside human immunodeficiency virus type-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitor U-90152E. Biochem Pharmacol 47(11):2017–2028
Souza TM, Rodrigues DQ, Ferreira VF, Marques IP, da Costa Santos F, Cunha AC, de Souza MC, de Palmer Paixao Frugulhetti IC, Bou-Habib DC, Fontes CF (2009) Characterization of HIV-1 enzyme reverse transcriptase inhibition by the compound 6-chloro-1,4-dihydro-4-oxo-1-(beta-D-ribofuranosyl) quinoline-3- carboxylic acid through kinetic and in silico studies. Curr HIV Res 7(3):327–335
Pitta E, Geronikaki A, Surmava S, Eleftheriou P, Mehta V, Van der Eicken E (2013) Synthesis and HIV-1 RT inhibitory action of novel (4/6-substituted benzo[d]thiazol -2-yl)thiazolidin-4-ones. Divergence from the noncompetitive mechanism. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 28(1):113–122
Andries K, Azijn H, Thielemans T, Ludovici D, Kukla M, Heeres J, Janssen P, De Corte B, Vingerhoets J, Pauwels R, de Bethune MP (2004) TMC125, a novel next-generation nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor active against nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor-resistant human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48(12):4680–4686
Zhan P, Liu X, Li Z, Fang Z, Li Z, Wang D, Pannecouque C, De Clercq E (2008) Novel 1,2,3-thiadiazole derivatives as HIV-1 NNRTIs with improved potency: synthesis and preliminary SAR studies. Acta Pharm 57:379–393
Rao A, Balzarini J, Carbone A, Chimirri A, De Clercq E, Monforte AM, Monforte P, Pannecouque C, Zappala M (2004) 2-(2,6-Dihalophenyl)-3-(pyrimidin-2-yl)-1,3-thiazolidin-4-ones as non-nucleoside HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antiviral Res 63:79–84
Debyser Z, Pauwels R, Andries K, Desmyter J, Kukla M, Janssen PA, De Clercq E (1991) An antiviral target on reverse transcriptase of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 revealed by tetrahydroimidazo-[4,5,1-jk][1,4]benzodiazepin-2 (1H)-one and -thione derivatives. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88(4):1451–1455
Goldman ME, Nunberg JH, O’Brien JA, Quintero JC, Schleif WA, Freund KF, Gaul SL, Saari WS, Wai JS, Hoffman JM et al (1991) Pyridinone derivatives: specific human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors with antiviral activity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 88(15):6863–6867
Miyasaka T, Tanaka H, Baba M, Hayakawa H, Walker RT, Balzarini J, De Clercq E (1989) A novel lead for specific anti-HIV-1 agents: 1-[(2-hydroxyethoxy)methyl]-6-(phenylthio)thymine. J Med Chem 32(12):2507–2509
Baba M, Tanaka H, De Clercq E, Pauwels R, Balzarini J, Schols D, Nakashima H, Perno CF, Walker RT, Miyasaka T (1989) Highly specific inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by a novel 6-substituted acyclouridine derivative. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 165(3):1375–1381
Rawal RK, Tripathi R, Kulkarni S, Paranjape R, Katti SB, Pannecouque C, De Clercq E (2008) 2-(2,6-Dihalo-phenyl)-3-heteroaryl-2-ylmethyl-1, 3-thiazolidin-4-ones: anti-HIV agents. Chem Biol Drug Des 72(2):147–154
Brzozowski Z, Saczewski F, Neamati N (2006) Synthesis, antitumor and anti-HIV activities of benzodithiazine-dioxides. Bioorg Med Chem 14:2985–2993
Novikov MS, Valuev-Elliston VT, Babkov DA, Paramonova MP, Ivanov AV, Gavryushov SA, Khandazhinskaya AL, Kochetkov SN, Pannecouque C, Andrei G, Snoeck R, Balzarini J, Seley-Radtke KL (2013) N1, N3-disubstituted uracils as nonnucleoside inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. Bioorg Med Chem 21:1150–1158
Wang Y-P, Chen F-E, De Clercq E, Balzarini J, Pannecouque C (2009) Synthesis and in vitro anti-HIV evaluation of a new series of 6-arylmethyl-substituted S-DABOs as potential non-nucleoside HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Eur J Med Chem 41:1016–1023
La Regina G, Coluccia A, Piscitelli F, Bergamini A, Sinistro A, Cavazza A, Maga J, Samuele A, Zanoli S, Novellino E, Artico M, Silvestri R (2007) Indolyl aryl sulfones as HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: role of two halogen atoms at the indole ring in developing new analogues with improved antiviral activity. J Med Chem 50:5034–5038
Balzarini J, Orzeszko B, Maurin JK, Orzeszko A (2007) Synthesis and anti-HIV studies of 2-adamantyl-substituted thiazolidin-4-ones. Eur J Med Chem 42:993–1003
Akkouh O, Tzi Bun N, Singh SS, Yin C, Dan X, Chan YC, Pan W, Cheung RCF (2015) Lectins with anti-HIV activity: a review. Molecules 20:648–668
Famiglini V, Coluccia A, Brancale A, Pelliccia S, La Regina G, Silvestri R (2013) Arylsulfone-based HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Future Med Chem 5(18):2141–2156
De Clercq E (2013) Dancing with chemical formulae of antivirals: a personal account. Biochem Pharmacol 86(6):711–725
Veljkovic N, Glisic S, Prljic J, Perovic V, Veljkovic V (2013) Simple and general criterion for “in silico” screening of candidate HIV drugs. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 14(5):561–569
Li D, Zhan P, Liu H, Pannecouque C, Balzarini J, De Clercq E, Liu X (2013) Synthesis and biological evaluation of pyridazine derivatives as novel HIV-1 NNRTIs. Bioorg Med Chem 21:2128–2134
La Regina G, Coluccia A, Brancale A, Piscitelli F, Gatti V, Maga G, Samuele A, Pannecouque C, Schols D, Balzarini J, Novellino E, Silvestri R (2011) Indolylarylsulfones as HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: new cyclic substituents at indole-2-carboxamide. J Med Chem 54:1587–1598
La Regina G, Coluccia A, Brancale A, Piscitelli F, Famiglini V, Cosconati S, Maga G, Samuele A, Gonzalez E, Clotet B, Schols D, Esté JA, Novellino E, Silvestri R (2012) New nitrogen containing substituents at the indole-2-carboxamide yield high potent and broad spectrum indolylarylsulfone HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. J Med Chem 55:6634–6638
Rotili D, Samuele A, Tarantino D, Ragno R, Musmuca I, Ballante F, Botta G, Morera L, Pierini M, Cirilli R, Nawrozkij MB, Gonzalez E, Clotet B, Artico M, Esté JA, Maga G, Mai A (2012) 2-(Alkyl/aryl)amino-6-benzylpyrimidin-4(3H)-ones as inhibitors of wild-type and mutant HIV-1: enantioselectivity studies. J Med Chem 55:3558–3562
Rawal RK, Tripathi R, Katti SB, Pannecouque C, De Clercq E (2008) Design and synthesis of 2-(2,6-dibromophenyl)-3-heteroaryl-1,3-thiazolidin-4-ones as anti-HIV agents. Eur J Med Chem 43:2800–2806
Ravichandran S, Veerasamy R, Raman S, Krishnan PN, Agrawal RK (2008) An overview on HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Dig J Nanomater Biostruct 3(4):171–187
Paolucci S, Baldanti F, Tinelli M et al (2002) Q145M, a novel HIV-1 reverse transcriptase mutation conferring resistance to nucleoside and nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Antivir Ther 7(2):S35
Johnson VA, Brun-Vezinet F, Clotet B, Conway B, D’Acquila RT, Demeter LM, Kuritzkes DR, Pillay D, Shapiro JM, Telenta A, Richman DD (2004) Update of the drug resistance mutations in HIV-1: 2004. Top HIV Med 12(4):119–124
Mbuagbaw LC, Irlam JH, Spaulding A, Rutherford GW, Siegfried N (2010) Efavirenz or nevirapine in three-drug combination therapy with two nucleoside-reverse transcriptase inhibitors for initial treatment of HIV infection in antiretroviral-naive individuals. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 8(12):CD004246
Neukam K, Mira JA, Ruiz-Morales J, Rivero A, Collado A, Torres-Cornejo A, Merino D, de Los Santos-Gil I, Macias J, Gonzalez-Serrano M, Camacho A, Parra-Garcia G, Pineda JA, On behalf of the SEGURIDAD HEPATICA Study Team of the Grupo HEPAVIR de la Sociedad Andaluza de Enfermedades Infecciosas (SAEI) (2011) Liver toxicity associated with antiretroviral therapy including efavirenz or ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors in a cohort of HIV/hepatitis C virus co-infected patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 66(11):2605–2614
Esposito F, Corona A, Tramontan E (2012) HIV-1 reverse transcriptase still remains a new drug target: structure, function, classical inhibitors, and new inhibitors with innovative mechanisms of actions. Mol Biol Int 2012:586401
Jochmans D, Deval J, Kesteleyn B, Van Marck H, Bettens E, De Baere I, Dehertogh P, Ivens T, Van Ginderen M, Van Schoubroeck B, Ethesami M, Wigerinck P, Gotte M, Hertogs K, Hertogs K (2006) Indolopyridones inhibit human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase with a novel mechanism of action. J Virol 80(24):12283–12292
Zhang Z, Walker M, Xu W, Shim JH, Giradet J-L, Hamatake RK, Hong Z (2006) Novel nonnucleoside inhibitors that select nucleoside inhibitor resistance mutations in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 reverse transcriptase. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 50(8):2772–2781
Maga G, Radi M, Zanoli S, Manetti F, Cancio R, Hübscher U, Spadari S, Falciani C, Terrazas M, Vilarrasa J, Botta M (2007) Discovery of non-nucleoside inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase competing with the nucleotide substrate. Angew Chem 16(11):1810–1813
Radi M, Falciani C, Contemori L, Petricci E, Maga G, Samuele A, Zanoli S, Terrazas M, Castria M, Togninelli A, Este JA, Clotet-Codina I, Armand-Ugon M, Botta M (2008) A multidisciplinary approach for the identification of novel HIV-1 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors: S-DABOCs and DAVPs. ChemMedChem 3(4):573–593
Freisz S, Bec G, Radi M, Wolff P, Crespan E, Angeli L, Dumas P, Maga G, Botta M, Ennifar E (2010) Crystal structure of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase bound to a non-nucleoside inhibitor with a novel mechanism of action. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 49:1805–1808
Wang JY, Ling H, Yang W, Craigie R (2001) Structure of a two-domain fragment of hiv-1 integrase: implications for domain organization in the intact protein. EMBO J 20:7333–7343
Lodi PJ, Ernst JA, Kuszewski J, Hickman AB, Engelman A, Craigie R, Clore GM, Gronenborn AM (1995) Solution structure of the DNA binding domain of HIV-1 integrase. Biochemistry 34(31):9826–9833
Rhodes DI, Peat TS, Vandegraaff N, Jeevarajah D, Newman J, Martyn J, Coates JA, Ede NJ, Rea P, Deadman JJ (2011) Crystal structures of novel allosteric peptide inhibitors of HIV integrase identify new interactions at the LEDGF binding site. Chembiochem 12(15):2311–2315
Sharma A, Slaughter A, Jena N, Feng L, Kessl JJ, Fadel HJ, Malani N, Male F, Wu L, Poeschla E, Bushman FD, Fuchs JR, Kvaratskhelia M (2014) A new class of multimerization selective inhibitors of HIV-1 integrase. Plos Pathog 10(5):e1004171
Wielens J, Headey SJ, Rhodes DI, Mulder RJ, Dolezal O, Deadman JJ, Newman J, Chalmers DK, Parker MW, Peat TS, Scanlon MJ (2013) Parallel screening of low molecular weight fragment libraries: do differences in methodology affect hit identification? J Biomol Screen 18:147–159
Hazuda DJ, Felock P, Witmer M, Wolfe A, Stillmock K, Grobler JA, Espeseth A, Gabryelski L, Schleif W, Blau C, Miller MD (2000) Inhibitors of strand transfer that prevent integration and inhibit HIV-1 replication in cells. Science 287(5453):646–650
Pommier Y, Johnson AA, Marchand C (2005) Integrase inhibitors to treat HIV/AIDS. Nat Rev Drug Discov 4(3):236–248
Wai JS, Egbertson MS, Payne LS, Fisher TE, Embrey MW, Tran LO, Melamed JY, Langford HM, Guare JP Jr, Zhuang L, Grey VE, Vacca JP, Holloway MK, Naylor-Olsen AM, Hazuda DJ, Felock PJ, Wolfe AL, Stillmock KA, Schleif WA, Gabryelski LJ, Young SD (2000) 4-Aryl-2,4-dioxobutanoic acid inhibitors of HIV-1 integrase and viral replication in cells. J Med Chem 43(26):4923–4926
Grobler JA, Stillmock K, Hu B, Witmer M, Felock P, Espeseth AS, Wolfe A, Egbertson M, Bourgeois M, Melamed J, Way JS, Young S, Vacca J, Hazuda DJ (2002) Diketo acid inhibitor mechanism and HIV-1 integrase: implications for metal binding in the active site of phosphotransferase enzymes. Proc Natl Acad Sci 99(10):6661–6666
Marchand C, Johnson AA, Karki RG, Pais GC, Zhang X, Cowansage K, Patel TA, Nicklaus M, Burke TR Jr, Pommier Y (2003) Metal-dependent inhibition of HIV-1 integrase by beta-diketo acids and resistance of the soluble double-mutant (F185K/C280S). Mol Pharmacol 64(3):600–609
Hazuda DJ, Young SD, Guare JP, Anthony NJ, Gomez RP, Wai JS, Vacca JP, Handt L, Motzel SL, Klein HJ, Dornadula G, Danovich RM, Witmer MV, Wilson KA, Tussey L, Schleif WA, Gabryelski LS, Jin L, Miller MD, Casimiro DR, Emini EA, Shiver JW (2004) Integrase inhibitors and cellular immunity suppress retroviral replication in rhesus macaques. Science 305(5683):528–532
Asante-Appiah E, Skalka AM (1999) HIV-1 integrase: structural organization, conformational changes, and catalysis. Adv Virus Res 52:351–369
Esposito D, Craigie R (1999) HIV integrase structure and function. Adv Virus Res 52:319–333
Summa V, Petrocchi A, Matassa VG, Gardelli C, Muraglia E, Rowley M, Paz OG, Laufer R, Monteagudo E, Pace P (2006) 4,5-Dihydroxypyrimidine carboxamides and N-alkyl-5-hydroxypyrimidinone carboxamides are potent, selective HIV integrase inhibitors with good pharmacokinetic profiles in preclinical species. J Med Chem 49(23):6646–6649
Savarino A (2006) A historical sketch of the discovery and development of HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 15(12):1507–1522
Iwamoto M, Wenning LA, Petry AS, Laethem M, De Smet M, Kost JT, Merschman SA, Strohmaier KM, Ramael S, Lasseter KC, Stone JA, Gottesdiener KM, Wagner JA (2008) Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of raltegravir after single and multiple doses in healthy subjects. Clin Pharmacol Ther 83(2):293–299
DeJesus E, Berger D, Markowitz M, Cohen C, Hawkins T, Ruane P, Elion R, Farthing C, Zhong L, Cheng AK, McColl D, Kearney BP (2006) Antiviral activity, pharmacokinetics, and dose response of the HIV-1 integrase inhibitor GS-9137 (JTK-303) in treatment-naive and treatment-experienced patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 43(1):1–5
Temesgen Z, Siraj DS (2008) Raltegravir: first in class HIV integrase inhibitor. Ther Clin Risk Manag 4(2):493–500
Mouscadet J-F, Tchertanov L (2009) Raltegravir: molecular basis of its mechanism of action. Eur J Med Res 14(Suppl III):5–16
Shimura KL, Kodama EN (2009) Elvitegravir: a new HIV integrase inhibitor. Antivir Chem Chemother 20(2):79–85
Fantauzzi A, Turriziani O, Mezzaroma I (2013) Potential benefit of dolutegravir once daily: efficacy and safety. HIV AIDS (Auckl) 5:29–40
Malet I, Delelis O, Valantin M-A, Montes B, Soulie C, Wirden M, Tchertanov L, Peytavin G, Reynes J, Mouscadet J-F, Katlama C, Calvez V, Marcelin A-G (2008) Mutations associated with failure of raltegravir treatment affect integrase sensitivity to the inhibitor in vitro. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 52(4):1351–1358
Métifiot M, Marchand C, Maddali K, Pommier Y (2010) Resistance to integrase inhibitors. Viruses 2(7):1347–1366
Kobayashi M, Yoshinaga T, Seki T, Wakasa-Morimoto C, Brown KW, Ferris R, Foster SA, Hazen RJ, Miki S, Suyama-Kagitani A, Kawauchi-Miki S, Taishi T, Kawasuji T, Johns BA, Underwood MR, Garvey EP, Sato A, Fujiwara T (2011) In Vitro antiretroviral properties of S/GSK1349572, a next-generation HIV integrase inhibitor. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55(2):813–821
Pommier Y, Marchand C, Neamati N (2000) Retroviral inhibition of HIV-1 vector integrase inhibitors year 2000: update and perspectives. Antiviral Res 47:139–148
Neamati N, Marchand C, Pommier Y (2000) HIV-1 integrase inhibitors: past, present, and future. Adv Pharmacol 49:147–165
Young SD (2001) Inhibition of HIV-1 integrase by small molecules: the potential for a new class of AIDS chemotherapeutics. Curr Opin Drug Discov Devel 4:402–410
Pannecouque C, Pluymers W, Van Maele B, Tetz V, Cherepanov P, De Clercq E, Debyser Z (2002) New class of HIV integrase inhibitors that block viral replication in cell culture. Curr Biol 12:1169–1177
Brzozowski Z, Saczewski F, Sławiński J, Sanchez T, Neamati N (2009) Synthesis and anti-HIV-1 integrase activities of 3-aroyl-2,3-dihydro-1,1-dioxo-1,4,2-benzodithiazines. Eur J Med Chem 44:190–196
Johnson TW, Tanis SP, Butler SL, Dalvie D, DeLisle DM, Dress KR, Flahive EJ, Hu Q, Kuehler JE, Kuki A, Liu W, McClellan GA, Peng Q, Plewe MB, Richardson PF, Smith GL, Solowiej J, Tran KT, Yu HWX, Zhang J, Zhu H (2011) Design and synthesis of novel N-hydroxy-dihydronaphthyridinones as potent and orally bioavailable HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. J Med Chem 54:3393–3417
Kawasuji T, Johns BA, Yoshida H, Taishi T, Taoda Y, Murai H, Kiyama R, Fuji M, Yoshinaga T, Seki T, Kobayashi M, Sato A, Fujiwara T (2012) Carbamoyl pyridone HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. 1. Molecular design and establishment of an advanced two-metal binding pharmacophore. J Med Chem 55(20):8735–8744
Tsiang M, Jones GS, Niedziela-Majka A, Kan E, Lansdon EB, Huang W, Hung M, Samuel D, Novikov N, Xu Y, Mitchell M, Guo H, Babaoglu K, Liu X, Geleziunas R, Sakowicz R (2012) New class of HIV-1 integrase (in) inhibitors with a dual mode of action. J Biol Chem 287:21189–21203
Seelmeier S, Schmidt H, Turk V, von der Helm K (1988) Human immunodeficiency virus has an aspartic-type protease that can be inhibited by pepstatin A. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 85:6612–6616
Kohl NE, Emini EA, Schleif WA, Davis LJ, Heimbach JC, Dixon RA, Scolnik EM, Sigal IS (1988) Active human immunodeficiency virus protease is required for viral infectivity. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 85:4686–4690
Degoey DA, Grampovnik DJ, Flentge CA, Flosi WJ, Chen HJ, Yeung CM, Randolph JT, Klein LL, Dekhtyar T, Colletti L, Marsh KC, Stoll V, Mamo M, Morfitt DC, Nguyen B, Schmidt JM, Swanson SJ, Mo H, Kati WM, Molla A, Kempf DJ (2009) 2-pyridyl p1′-substituted symmetry-based human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitors (A-792611 and a-790742) with potential for convenient dosing and reduced side effects. J Med Chem 52:2571–2586
McQuade TJ, Tomasselli AG, Liu L, Karacostas B, Moss B, Sawyer TK, Heinrikson RL, Tarpley WG (1990) A synthetic HIV protease inhibitor with antiviral activity arrests HIV-like particle maturation. Science 247:454–4566
Tang J, Lin Y, Co E, Hartsuck J, Lin X (1992) Understanding protease: can it be translated into effective therapy against AIDS. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 52(Suppl 210):127–135
Brik A, Wong CH (2003) HIV-1 protease: mechanism and drug discovery. Org Biomol Chem 1(1):5–14
Kurup A, Mekapati SB, Garg R, Hansch C (2003) HIV-1 protease inhibitors: a comparative QSAR analysis. Curr Med Chem 10:1679–1688
Perez MAS, Fernandes PA, Ramos MJ (2007) Drug design: new inhibitors for HIV-1 protease based on Nelfinavir as lead. J Mol Graph Model 26:634–642
Larder BA et al (2000) Tipranavir inhibits broadly protease inhibitor-resistant HIV-1 clinical samples. AIDS 14:1943–1948
Zeldin RK, Petruschke RA (2004) Pharmacological and therapeutic properties of ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor therapy in HIV-infected patients. J Antimicrob Chemother 53(1):4–9
Flentge CA, Randolph JT, Huang PP, Klein LL, Marsh KC, Harlan JE, Kempf DJ (2009) Synthesis and evaluation of inhibitors of cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A) for pharmacokinetic enhancement of drugs. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 19:5444–5448
Sperka T, Pitlik J, Bagossia P, Tozser J (2005) Beta-lactam compounds as apparently uncompetitive inhibitors of HIV-1 protease. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 15:3086–3090
Bisacchi GS, Slusarchyk VA, Bolton SA, Hartl KS, Jacobs G, Mathur A, Meng W, Ogletree ML, Pi Z, Sutton JC, Treuner U, Zahle R, Zhao G, Seiler SM (2004) Synthesis of potent and highly selective nonguanidine azetidinone inhibitors of human tryptase. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 14:2227–2231
Sutton JC, Bolton SA, Davis ME, Hartl KS, Jacobson B, Mathur A, Ogletree ML, Slusarchyk WA, Zahler SSM, Bisacchi GS (2004) Solid-phase synthesis and SAR of 4-carboxy-2-azetidinone mechanism-based tryptase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 14:2233–2239
Stebbins J, Beboucl C (1997) A microtiter colorimetric assay for the HIV-1 protease. Anal Biochem 248(2):246–250
Pitlik J, Townsend CA (1997) Solution-phase synthesis of a combinatorial monocyclic β-lactam library: potential protease inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 7:3129–3133
Tözsér J, Gustchina A, Weber IT, Blaha I, Wondrak EM, Oroszlan S (1991) Studies on the role of the S4 substrate binding site of HIV proteinases. FEBS Lett 279(2):356–360
Wondrak EM, Louis JM, Oroszlan S (1991) purification of HIV-1 wild-type protease and characterization of proteolytically inactive HIV-1 protease mutants by pepstatin A affinity chromatography. FEBS Lett 280:347–350
Bagossi P, János Kádas J, Gabriella Miklóssy G, Boross P, Weber IT, Tözsér J (2004) Development of a microtiter plate fluorescent assay for inhibition studies on the HTLV-1 and HIV-1 proteinases. J Virol Methods 119:87–93
Cígler P, Kožíšek M, Řezáčová P, Brynda J, Otwinowski Z, Pokorná J, Plešek J, Grüner B, Dolečková-Marešová L, Máša M, Sedláček J, Bodem J, Kräusslich H-G, Král V, Konvalinka J (2005) From nonpeptide toward noncarbon protease inhibitors: metallacarboranes as specific and potent inhibitors of HIV protease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102(43):15394–15399
Ghosh AK, Anderson DD (2011) Tetrahydrofuran, tetrahydropyran, triazoles and related heterocyclic derivatives as HIV protease inhibitors. Future Med Chem 3(9):1181–1197
Wang RR, Gao Y-D, Ma C-H, Zhang X-J, Huang C-G, Huang J-F, Zheng Y-T (2011) Mangiferin, an anti-HIV-1 agent targeting protease and effective against resistant strains. Molecules 16:4264–4277
Jonckers THM, Rouan M-C, Hachι G, Schepens W, Hallenberger S, Baumeister J, Sasaki JC (2012) Benzoxazole and benzothiazole amides as novel pharmacokinetic enhancers of HIV protease inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 22:4998–5002
Surleraux DLNG, Tahri A, Verschueren WG, Pille GME, de Kock HA, Jonckers THM, Peeters A, De Meyer S, Azijn H, Pauwels R, de Bethune M-P, King NM, Prabu-Jeyabalan M, Schiffer CA, Wigerinck PBTP (2005) Discovery and selection of TMC114, a next generation HIV-1 protease inhibitor. J Med Chem 48:1813–1822
Manchanda T, Schiedel D, Fischer D, Dekaban GA, Rieder MJ (2002) Adverse drug reactions to protease inhibitors. Can J Clin Pharmacol 9(3):137–146, Fall
Hui DY (2003) Effects of HIV protease inhibitor therapy on lipid metabolism. Prog Lipid Res 42(2):81–92
Friis-Moller N, Weber R, Reiss P, Thiιbaut R, Kirk O, Monforte AD, Pradier C, Morfeldt L, Mateu S, Law M, El-Sadr W, DeWit S, Sabin CA, Phillips AN, Lundgren JD (2003) Cardiovascular disease risk factors in HIV patients—association with antiretroviral therapy: results from the DAD study. AIDS 17:1179–1193
Friis-Moller N, Reiss P, Sabin CA, Weber R, Monforte AD, El-Sadr W, Thiιbaut R, DeWit S, Kirk O, Fontas E, Law MG, Phillips A, Lundgren JD (2007) Class of antiretroviral drugs and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 356:1723–1735
Smith C, Sabin CA, Lundgren JD, Thiebaut R, Weber R, Law RM, Monforte AD, Kirk O, Friis-Moller N, Phillips A, Reiss P, El Sadr W, Pradier C, Worm SW (2010) Factors associated with specific causes of death amongst HIV-positive individuals in the DAD study. AIDS 24:1537–1548
Zaera M, Miro O, Pedrol E, Soler A, Picon M, Cardellach F, Casademont J, Nunes V (2001) Mitochondrial involvement in antiretroviral therapy-related lipodystrophy. AIDS 15:1643–1651
Zhang S, Carper MJ, Lei X, Cade WT, Yarashesk KE, Ramanadham S (2009) Protease inhibitors used in the treatment of HIV+ induce beta-cell apoptosis via the mitochondrial pathway and compromise insulin secretion. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 296:E925–E935
Lagathu C, Eustace B, Prot M, Frantz D, Gu Y, Bastard J-P, Maachi M, Azoulay S, Briggs M, Caron M, Capeau J (2007) Some HIV antiretrovirals increase oxidative stress and alter chemokine, cytokine or adiponectin production in human adipocytes and macrophages. Antivir Ther 12:489–500
Chandra S, Mondal D, Agrawal KS (2009) HIV-1 protease inhibitor induced oxidative stress suppresses glucose stimulated insulin release: protection with thymoquinone. Exp Biol Med 234:442–453
Touzet O, Philips A (2010) Resveratrol protects against protease inhibitor-induced reactive oxygen species production, reticulum stress and lipid raft perturbation. AIDS 24:1437–1447
Ben-Romano R, Rudich A, Etzion S, Potashnik R, Kagan E, Greenbaum U, Bashan N (2006) Nelfinavir induces adipocyte insulin resistance through the induction of oxidative stress: differential protective effect of antioxidant agents. Antivir Ther 11:1051–1060
Wang X, Chai H, Lin PH, Yao Q, Chen C (2009) Roles and mechanisms of human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitor ritonavir and other anti-human immunodeficiency virus drugs in endothelial dysfunction of porcine pulmonary arteries and human pulmonary artery endothelial cells. Am J Pathol 174:771–781
Wang X, Mu H, Chai H, Liao D, Yao Q, Chen C (2007) Human immunodeficiency virus protease inhibitor ritonavir inhibits cholesterol efflux from human macrophage-derived foam cells. Am J Pathol 171:304–314
Conklin BS, Fu W, Lin PH, Lumsden AB, Yao Q, Chen C (2004) HIV protease inhibitor ritonavir decreases endothelium-dependent vasorelaxation and increases superoxide in porcine arteries. Cardiovasc Res 63:168–175
Chai H, Yang H, Yan S, Li M, Lin PH, Lumsden AB, Yao Q, Chen C (2005) Effects of HIV protease inhibitors on vasomotor function and superoxide anion production in porcine coronary arteries. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 40:12–19
Kilby JM, Hopkins S, Venetta TM, DiMassimo B, Cloud GA, Lee JY, Alldredge L, Hunter E, Lambert D, Bolognesi D, Matthews T, Johnson MR, Nowak MA, Shaw GM, Saag MS (1998) Potent suppression of HIV-1 replication in humans by T-20, a peptide inhibitor of gp41-mediated virus entry. Nat Med 4(11):1302–1307
Robertson D (2003) US FDA approves new class of HIV therapeutics. Nat Biotechnol 21(5):470–471
Este JA, Telenti A (2007) HIV entry inhibitors. Lancet 370(9581):81–88
Tan Q, Zhu Y, Li J, Chen Z, Han GW, Kufareva I, Li T, Ma L, Fenalti G, Li J, Zhang W, Xie X, Yang H, Jiang H, Cherezov V, Liu H, Stevens RC, Zhao Q, Wu B (2013) Structure of the CCR5 chemokine receptor-HIV entry inhibitor maraviroc complex. Science 341:1387–1390
Marcial M, Lu J, Deeks SG, Ziermann R, Kuritzkes DR (2006) Performance of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp41 assays for detecting enfuvirtide (T-20) resistance mutations. J Clin Microbiol 44(9):3384–3387
Rimsky LT, Shugars DC, Matthews TJ (1998) Determinants of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 resistance to gp41-derived inhibitory peptides. J Virol 72:986–993
Sista PR, Melby T, Davison D, Jin L, Mosier S, Mink M, Nelson EL, DeMasi R, Cammack N, Salgo MP, Matthews TJ, Greenberg ML (2004) Characterization of determinants of genotypic and phenotypic resistance to enfuvirtide in baseline and on-treatment HIV-1 isolates. AIDS 18:1787–1794
Marcelin AG, Reynes J, Yerly S, Ktorza N, Segondy M, Piot JC, Delfraissy JF, Kaiser L, Perrin L, Katlama C, Calvez V (2004) Characterization of genotypic determinants in HR-1 and HR-2 gp41 domains in individuals with persistent HIV viraemia under T-20. AIDS 18:1340–1342
Mink M, Mosier SM, Janumpalli S, Davison D, Jin L, Melby T, Sista P, Erickson J, Lambert D, Stanfield-Oakley SA, Salgo M, Cammack N, Matthews T, Greenberg ML (2005) Impact of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp41 amino acid substitutions selected during enfuvirtide treatment on gp41 binding and antiviral potency of enfuvirtide in vitro. J Virol 79:12447–12454
Xu L, Pozniak A, Wildfire A, Stanfield-Oakley SA, Mosier SM, Ratcliffe D, Workman J, Joall A, Myers R, Smit E, Cane PA, Greenberg ML, Pillay D (2005) Emergence and evolution of enfuvirtide resistance following long-term therapy involves heptad repeat 2 mutations within gp41. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 49:1113–1119
Yao X, Chong H, Zhang C, Waltersperger S, Wang M, Cui S, He Y (2012) Broad antiviral activity and crystal structure of HIV-1 fusion inhibitor sifuvirtide. J Biol Chem 287:6788–6796
Jiang S, Tala SR, Lu H, Abo-Dya NE, Avan I, Gyanda K, Lu L, Katritzky AR, Debnath AK (2011) Design, synthesis, and biological activity of novel 5-((arylfuran/1H-pyrrol-2-yl)methylene)-2-thioxo-3-(3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)thiazolidin-4-ones as HIV-1 fusion inhibitors targeting gp41. J Med Chem 54:572–579
Jiang S, Lu H, Liu S, Zhao Q, He Y, Debnath AK (2004) N-substituted pyrrole derivatives as novel human immunodeficiency virus type 1 entry inhibitors that interfere with the gp41 six helix bundle formation and block virus fusion. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 48:4349–4359
Katritzky AR, Tala SR, Lu H, Vakulenko AV, Chen Q-Y, Sivapackiam J, Pandya K, Jiang S, Debnath AK (2009) Design, synthesis, and structure-activity relationship of a novel series of 2-aryl 5-(4-oxo-3-phenethyl-2-thioxothiazolidinylidenemethyl) furans as HIV-1 entry inhibitors. J Med Chem 52:7631–7639
Teixeira C, Gomes JRB, Gomes P, Maurel F (2011) Viral surface glycoproteins, gp120 and gp41, as potential drug targets against HIV-1: brief overview one quarter of a century past the approval of zidovudine, the first anti-retroviral drug. Eur J Med Chem 46(4):979–992
Acharya P, Lusvarghi S, Bewley CA, Kwong PD (2015) HIV-1 gp120 as a therapeutic target: navigating a moving labyrinth. Expert Opin Ther Targets 19(6):765–783
Dezube BJ, Dahl TA, Wong TK, Chapman B, Ono M, Yamaguchi N, Gillies SD, Chen LB, Crumpacker CS (2000) A fusion inhibitor (FP-21399) for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection: a phase I study. J Infect Dis 182:607–610
Hermann H, Westhof E (1998) RNA as a drug target: chemical, modeling, and evolutionary tools. Curr Opin Biotechnol 9:66–73
Yang M (2005) Discoveries of Tat-Tar interaction inhibitors for HIV-1. Curr Drug Targets Infect Disord 5(4):433–444
Gait MJ, Karn J (1993) RNA recognition by the human immunodeficiency virus Tat and Rev proteins. Trends Biochem Sci 18:255–259
AbouI-Ela F, Karn J, Varani G (1995) The structure of the human immunodeficiency virus type-1 TAR RNA reveals principles of RNA recognition by Tat protein. J Mol Biol 253:313–332
O’Brien WA, Sumner-Smith M, Mao SH, Sadeghi S, Zhao JQ, Chen IS (1996) Anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity of an oligocationic compound mediated via gp120 V3 interactions. J Virol 70:2825–2831
Hamasaki K, Ueno A (2001) Aminoglycoside antibiotics, neamine and its derivatives as potent inhibitors for the RNA-protein interactions derived from HIV-1 activators. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 11:591–594
Marciniak RA, Sharp PA (1991) HIV-1 Tat protein promotes formation of more-processive elongation complexes. EMBO J 10:4189–4196
Daelemans D, Este JA, Witvrouw M et al (1997) S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase inhibitors interfere with the replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 through inhibition of the LTR transactivation. Mol Pharmacol 52:1157–1163
De Clercq E (1998) Carbocyclic adenosine analogues as S-adenosylhomocysteine hydrolase inhibitors and antiviral agents: recent advances. Nucleosides Nucleotides 17:625–634
Ratmeyer L, Zapp ML, Green MR, Vinayak R, Kumar A, Boykin DW, Wilson WD (1996) Inhibition of HIM-1 Rev-RRE interaction by diphenylfuran derivatives. Biochemistry 35:13689–13696
Kaufmann GR, Cooper DA (2000) Antiretroviral therapy of HIV-1 infection: established treatment strategies and new therapeutic options. Curr Opin Microbiol 3(5):508–514
Richman DD (2001) HIV chemotherapy. Nature 410(6831):995–1001
Lipshultz SE, Miller TL, Wilkinson JD, Scott GB, Somarriba G, Cochran TR, Fisher SD (2013) Cardiac effects in perinatally HIV-infected and HIV-exposed but uninfected children and adolescents: a view from the United States of America. J Int AIDS Soc 16(1):18597
Maldarelli F, Palmer S, King MS, Wiegand A, Polis MA, Mican J, Kovacs JA, Davey RT, Rock-Kress D, Dewar R, Liu S, Metcalf JA, Rehm C, Brun SC, Hanna GJ, Kempf DJ, Coffin JM, Mellors JW (2007) ART suppresses plasma HIV-1 RNA to a stable set point predicted by pretherapy viremia. PLoS Pathog 3(4):e46
Maartens G, Celum C, Lewin SR (2014) HIV infection: epidemiology, pathogenesis, treatment, and prevention. Lancet 384(9939):258–271
Didigu C, Doms R (2014) Gene therapy targeting HIV entry. Viruses 6(3):1395–1409
Archin NM, Sung JM, Garrido C, Soriano-Sarabia N, Margolis DM (2014) Eradicating HIV-1 infection: seeking to clear a persistent pathogen. Nat Rev Microbiol 12(11):750–764
Siliciano JD, Siliciano RF (2014) Recent developments in the search for a cure for HIV-1 infection: targeting the latent reservoir for HIV-1. J Allergy Clin Immunol 134(1):12–19
Manson McManamy ME, Hakre S, Verdin EM, Margolis DM (2014) Therapy for latent HIV-1 infection: the role of histone deacetylase inhibitors. Antivir Chem Chemother 23(4):145–149
Bullen CK, Laird GM, Durand CM, Siliciano JD, Siliciano RF (2014) New ex vivo approaches distinguish effective and ineffective single agents for reversing HIV-1 latency in vivo. Nat Med 20(4):425–429
Archin NM, Bateson R, Tripathy MK, Crooks AM, Yang KH, Dahl NP, Kearney MF, Anderson EM, Coffin JM, Strain MC, Richman DD, Robertson KR, Kashuba AD, Bosch RJ, Hazuda DJ, Kuruc JD, Eron JJ, Margolis D (2014) HIV-1 expression within resting CD4+ T cells after multiple doses of vorinostat. J Infect Dis 210(5):728–735
Sogaard OS, Graversen ME, Leth S et al (2014) The HDAC inhibitor romidepsin is safe and effectively reverses HIV-1 latency in vivo as measured by standard clinical assays. In: 20th international AIDS conference, Melbourne, Abst TUAA0106LB, 20–25 July 2014
Newman DJ, Cragg GM (2012) Natural products as sources of new drugs over the 30 years from 1981 to 2010. J Nat Prod 75(3):311–335
Kumari A, Baskaran P, Van Staden J (2015) Enhanced HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory and antibacterial properties in callus of Catha edulis Forsk. Phytother Res 29(6):840–843
Xu L, Grandi N, Del Vecchio C, Mandas D, Corona A, Piano D, Esposito F, Parolin C, Tramontano E (2015) From the traditional Chinese medicine plant Schisandra chinensis new scaffolds effective on HIV-1 reverse transcriptase resistant to non-nucleoside inhibitors. J Microbiol 53(4):288–293
Huang SZ, Zhang X, Ma QY, Peng H, Zheng YT, Hu JM, Dai HF, Zhou J, Zhao YX (2014) Anti-HIV-1 tigliane diterpenoids from Excoecaria acertiflia Didr. Fitoterapia 95:34–41
Ellithey MS, Lall N, Hussein AA, Meyer D (2014) Cytotoxic and HIV-1 enzyme inhibitory activities of Red Sea marine organisms. BMC Complement Altern Med 14:77
Helfer M, Koppensteiner H, Schneider M, Rebensburg S, Forcisi S, Müller C, Schmitt-Kopplin P, Schindler M, Brack-Werner R (2014) The root extract of the medicinal plant Pelargonium sidoides is a potent HIV-1 attachment inhibitor. PLoS One 9(1):e87487
Suedee A, Tewtrakul S, Panichayupakaranant P (2013) Anti-HIV-1 integrase compound from Pometia pinnata leaves. Pharm Biol 51(10):1256–1261
Nutan, Modi M, Dezzutti CS, Kulshreshtha S, Rawat AK, Srivastava SK, Malhotra S, Verma A, Ranga U, Gupta SK (2013) Extracts from Acacia catechu suppress HIV-1 replication by inhibiting the activities of the viral protease and Tat. Virol J 10:309
Leteane MM, Ngwenya BN, Muzila M, Namushe A, Mwinga J, Musonda R, Moyo S, Mengestu YB, Abegaz BM, Andrae-Marobela K (2012) Old plants newly discovered: Cassia sieberiana D.C. and Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Oliv. root extracts inhibit in vitro HIV-1c replication in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) by different modes of action. J Ethnopharmacol 141(1):48–56
Park IW, Han C, Song X, Green LA, Wang T, Liu Y, Cen C, Song X, Yang B, Chen G, He JJ (2009) Inhibition of HIV-1 entry by extracts derived from traditional Chinese medicinal herbal plants. BMC Complement Altern Med 9:29
Bobbin ML, Burnett JC, Rossi JJ (2015) RNA interference approaches for treatment of HIV-1 infection. Genome Med 7(1):50
Swaminathan G, Navas-Martín S, Martín-García J (2014) MicroRNAs and HIV-1 infection: antiviral activities and beyond. J Mol Biol 426(6):1178–1197
Lai YT, DeStefano JJ (2012) DNA aptamers to human immunodeficiency virus reverse transcriptase selected by a primer-free SELEX method: characterization and comparison with other aptamers. Nucleic Acid Ther 22(3):162–176
Jorgensen WL (2004) The many roles of computation in drug discovery. Science 303(5665):1813–1818
Geppert H, Vogt M, Bajorath J (2010) Current trends in ligand-based virtual screening: molecular representations, data mining methods, new application areas, and performance evaluation. J Chem Inf Model 50:205–216
Wei Y, Li J, Chen Z, Wang F, Huang W, Hong Z, Lin J (2015) Multistage virtual screening and identification of novel HIV-1 protease inhibitors by integrating SVM, shape, pharmacophore and docking methods. Eur J Med Chem 101:409–418
Tewtrakul S, Chaniad P, Pianwanit S, Karalai C, Ponglimanont C, Yodsaoue O (2015) Anti-HIV-1 integrase activity and molecular docking study of compounds from Caesalpinia sappan L. Phytother Res 29(5):724–729
Ahmad M, Aslam S, Rizvi SU, Muddassar M, Ashfaq UA, Montero C, Ollinger O, Detorio M, Gardiner JM, Schinazi RF (2015) Molecular docking and antiviral activity of N-substituted benzyl/phenyl-2-(3,4-dimethyl-5,5-dioxidopyrazolo[4,3-c][1,2]benzothiazin-2(4H)-yl)acetamides. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 25(6):1348–1351
Singh A, Yadav D, Yadav M, Dhamanage A, Kulkarni S, Singh RK (2015) Molecular modeling, synthesis and biological evaluation of N-heteroaryl compounds as reverse transcriptase inhibitors against HIV-1. Chem Biol Drug Des 85(3):336–347
Filimonov DA, Lagunin AA, Gloriozova TA, Rudik AV, Druzhilovskii DS, Pogodin PV, Poroikov VV (2014) Prediction of the biological activity spectra of organic compounds using the PASS online web resource. Chem Heterocycl Compd 50(3):444–457
Zhang C, Du C, Feng Z, Zhu J, Li Y (2015) Hologram quantitative structure activity relationship, docking, and molecular dynamics studies of inhibitors for CXCR4. Chem Biol Drug Des 85(2):119–136
Corona A, Di Leva FS, Thierry S, Pescatori L, Cuzzucoli Crucitti G, Subra F, Delelis O, Esposito F, Rigogliuso G, Costi R, Cosconati S, Novellino E, Di Santo R, Tramontano E (2014) Identification of highly conserved residues involved in inhibition of HIV-1 RNase H function by diketo acid derivatives. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 58(10):6101–6110
Meleddu R, Cannas V, Distinto S, Sarais G, Del Vecchio C, Esposito F, Bianco G, Corona A, Cottiglia F, Alcaro S, Parolin C, Artese A, Scalise D, Fresta M, Arridu A, Ortuso F, Maccioni E, Tramontano E (2014) Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of 1,3-diarylpropenones as dual inhibitors of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. ChemMedChem 9(8):1869–1879
Song Y, Zhan P, Li X, Rai D, De Clercq E, Liu X (2013) Multivalent agents: a novel concept and preliminary practice in Anti-HIV drug discovery. Curr Med Chem 20(6):815–832
Poroikov VV, Filimonov DA, Ihlenfeldt W-D, Gloriozova TA, Lagunin AA, Borodina YV, Stepanchikova AV, Nicklaus MC (2003) PASS biological activity spectrum predictions in the enhanced open NCI database browser. J Chem Inf Comput Sci 43(1):228–236
Liao C, Nicklaus MC (2010) Computer tools in the discovery of HIV-1 integrase inhibitors. Future Med Chem 7:1123–1140
Alcaro S, Artese A, Ceccherini-Silberstein F, Chiarella V, Dimonte S, Ortuso F, Perno CF (2010) Computational analysis of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Type-1 reverse transcriptase crystallographic models based on significant conserved residues found in Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART)-treated patients. Curr Med Chem 17(4):290–308
Kirchmair J, Distinto S, Liedl KR, Markt P, Rollinger JM, Schuster D, Spitzer GM, Wolber G (2011) Development of anti-viral agents using molecular modeling and virtual screening techniques. Infect Disord Drug Targets 11(1):64–93
Rawal RK, Murugesan V, Katti SB (2012) Structure-activity relationship studies on clinically relevant HIV-1 NNRTIs. Curr Med Chem 19(31):5364–5380
Hao GF, Yang SG, Yang GF (2014) Structure-based design of conformationally flexible reverse transcriptase inhibitors to combat resistant HIV. Curr Pharm Des 20(5):725–739
Seckler JM, Leioatts N, Miao H, Grossfield A (2013) The interplay of structure and dynamics: insights from a survey of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase crystal structures. Proteins 81(10):1792–1801
Allen WJ, Balius TE, Mukherjee S, Brozell SR, Moustakas DT, Lang PT, Case DA, Kuntz ID, Rizzo RC (2015) DOCK 6: impact of new features and current docking performance. J Comput Chem 36(15):1132–1156
Tarasova OA, Urusova AF, Filimonov DA, Nicklaus MC, Zakharov AV, Poroikov VV (2015) QSAR modeling using large-scale databases: case study for HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors. J Chem Inf Model. doi:10.1021/acs.jcim.5b00019. First published online June 5, 2015
De Clercq E (2015) Curious discoveries in antiviral drug development: the role of serendipity. Med Res Rev 35(4):698–719
Filimonov DA, Lagunin AA, Gloriozova TA, Gawande D, Goel R, Poroikov VV (2014) Libraries of natural and synthetic compounds as sources of novel drug-candidates. In: Chemistry of heterocyclic compounds. Modern trends, vol 1. ICSPF, Moscow. pp 464–471 (Rus)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Geronikaki, A., Eleftheriou, P., Poroikov, V. (2016). Anti-HIV Agents: Current Status and Recent Trends. In: Saxena, A. (eds) Communicable Diseases of the Developing World. Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, vol 29. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/7355_2015_5001
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7355_2015_5001
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-78252-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-78254-6
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)