Abstract
This chapter considers the preparation of brine from solid salt and the design and operation of each of the major units in a brine purification system. The discussion begins with the sources of electrolysis salts (both sodium and potassium chlorides; both natural and refined) and the methods of handling and storing them and then dissolving them to prepare brine. There is also a brief discussion of the storage and handling of brine. The rest of the chapter is then devoted to the treatment of brine to reach the purity demanded by the various types of cell. The sequence of the discussion follows the flow diagrams of Figs. 6.1 and 6.2.
Keywords
These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
References
M. Kurlansky, Salt: A World History, Walker & Co., New York (2002), p. 207.
B.M. Bertram, Sodium Chloride. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed., vol. 22, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1997), p. 354.
B. Kummel, History of the Earth, 2nd ed., W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco (1970), p. 426.
L. Kuhns, Subterranean Salt, reprint from Water Technology, July-August (1978).
Encyclopedia Britannica, Salt, http://www.britannica.com (2002).
R.J. Coin, Brine Treatment, Sixteenth Annual Electrode Corporation Chlorine/Chlorate Industry Seminar, Cleveland, OH (2000).
G. Baseggio, The Composition of Sea Water and Its Concentrates, Proceedings, Fourth International Symposium on Salt, Cleveland, OH (1971), p. 351.
V.M. Venkatesh Mannar, Design of Seawater Intake Facilities for Solar Salt Plants, Proceedings, Sixth International Symposium on Salt, vol. II (1983), p. 289.
D. Butts, Maximizing Solar Evaporation through Sequential Brine Flow, Kali91 International Potash Conference, Hamburg (1991).
N.H. Swedan, Chem. Eng. Progr. 95(7), 65 (1999).
B.S. Joshi and R.B. Bhatt, Design and Layout of Solar Salt Works, Proceedings, Sixth International Symposium on Salt, vol. II (1983), p. 281.
P.R. Bavdekar, Theory of Solar Salt Manufacture, Symposium on Salt and Byproducts, Bhavnagar, India (1964).
D.M. See, Solar Salt. In D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride-ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 100.
R.B. Tippin and P.E. Muehlberg, Chemicals from Brine. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 3rd ed., vol. 5, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1983), p. 385.
D. Butts, Chemicals from Brine. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed., vol. 5, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1993), p. 817.
M. Kurlansky, Salt: A World History, Walker & Co., New York (2002), p. 149.
WL. Badger and G.E. Seavoy, Vacuum Pan Salt. In D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 206.
R.B. Richards, Grainer Salt. In D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 262.
D.E. Bedford, Personal Communication (2000).
M. Hamada, I. Azuma, N. Imai, and H. Ono, Proceedings, Seventh Symposium on Salt, vol. 2, Elsevier, Amsterdam (1993), p. 59.
C.E. Niman, Cargill Salt Co., Personal Communication (2001).
T.H. Yohe, Use of Salt/Brine Evaporators in Brine-Fed Membrane Cell NaOH Plants, 30th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Washington, DC (1987).
D. Strietelmeier, Morton Salt Co., Personal Communication (1998).
W.L. Badger and G.E. Seavoy, Vacuum Pan Salt. In D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 211.
G.G. Brown and Associates, Unit Operations, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1950), p. 481.
R.B. Richards, Chem. Eng. 59, 140 (1952).
L.J. Theilgard, Chem. Eng. Progr. 58(8), 68 (1962).
V.A. Zandon, E.A. Schoeld, and J. McManus, Potash. In N.L. Weiss (ed.), SME Mineral Processing Handbook, vol. 2, Society of Mining Engineers, New York (1985), p. 22–31.
Salt Storage Handbook, Salt Institute, Alexandria, VA (1997).
Sterling Salt Users Guide, International Salt Company, Clarks Summit, PA (1981).
R.C. Sutter, Brine Treatment, Fifth Annual Electrode Corporation Chlorine/Chlorate Industry Seminar, Cleveland, OH (1989).
D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 512.
D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), pp. 587–623.
S. Subramanian, A.S. Ganesh Kumar, and C.T. Goudar, Determine Sieve Opening from Mesh Number, reprinted in Chemical Engineering Buyers Guide (2000), p. 15.
G.N. Lewis and M. Randall, Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances, 1st ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1923), p. 252.
E.A. Avallone and T. Baumeister III (eds.) ‚Marks ‘Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 10th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1996), pp. 10–35–10–55.
Sidney Manufacturing Co., Bucket Elevator Capacity Chart, http://www.sidneymanufacturing.com/capacity.htm (2002).
B.F. Reilly, Stearns Catalytic, Inc., Personal Communication (1983).
D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), pp. 282 et seq.
T.A. Liederbach, Brine Purification Systems for Chlor-Alkali Plants, Ninth Annual Electrode Corporation Chlorine/Chlorate Industry Seminar, Cleveland, OH (1993).
Z.G. Deutsch, Brine Wells and Pipelines. In D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 158.
M.T. Halbouty, Salt Domes, Gulf Region, United States and Mexico, Gulf Publishing Co., Houston (1967), p. 125.
J.L. Frear and J. Johnston, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 51, 2082 (1929).
V. Brandani, G. DelRe, and G. DiGiacomo, Chem. Eng. J. 32, 145 (1986).
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, http://www.dec.state.ny.us (2001).
A.V. Kublanov, Methods to Produce Brines from Underground Caverns in Bedded and Stock Deposits, Solution Mining Research Institute Spring Meeting, Orlando, FL (2001).
M. Slezak, Techniques in the Development of Salt Caverns for Multiple Use, Chlorine Bicentennial Symposium, The Electrochemical Society, Princeton, NJ (1974).
C.A. Bays, Use of Salt Solution Cavities for Underground Storage, Symposium on Salt, Northern Ohio Geological Society, Cleveland, OH (1963).
R.L. Thorns and R.L. Gehle, A Brief History of Salt Cavern Use, Keynote address, Salt 2000, http://www.solutionmining.org (2000).
T.F. LaGess, Disposal of Brine Treating Solids by Recycling to a Brine Well, Chlorine Bicentennial Symposium, The Electrochemical Society, Princeton, NJ (1974).
D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 314.
H.C. Miller, Canadian Patent 828,062 (1969).
R.C. Sutter, Brine Treatment, Seventh Annual Electrode Corporation Chlorine/Chlorate Industry Seminar, Cleveland, OH (1991).
P.H. Ralston and R.R. Mitchell, Electrochem. Technol. 5, 262 (1967).
Sulfate Solubility Inhibitor/2. Product data bulletin and material safety data sheets, Jamestown Chemical Corp., West Haven, CT (2002).
V. Sedivy, Krebs Swiss Division, Standard Messo, Personal Communication (2002).
R.G. Arnold, Jamestown Chemical Corp., Personal Communication (2002).
T.F. O’Brien, Control of Sulfates in Membrane-Cell Brine Systems. In K. Wall (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 3, Ellis Horwood, Chichester (1986), p. 326.
T.F. O’Brien, U.S. Patent 4,586,993 (1986).
D.A. Santos, Sulfate Control in Brine from Poor-Quality Raw Salt, Second Nafion® Global Users Forum, Fayetteville, NC (1993).
A. Damesimo, Jr., Niachlor Wastewater and Effluent Management, 39th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Washington, DC (1996).
Calcium Chloride, Technical and Engineering Service Bulletin No. 16, Allied Chemical Company, Morristown, NJ (undated).
D.W.F. Hardie, Electrolytic Manufacture of Chemicals from Salt, The Chlorine Institute, Inc., New York (1975).
E.H. Cook and M.P. Grotheer. In T.C. Jeffrey, P.A. Danna, and H.S. Holden (eds), Proceedings, Chlorine Bicentennial Symposium, The Electrochemical Society, Princeton, NJ (1974), p. 374.
G. Angel and T. Lunden, J. Electrochem. Soc. 99, 435 (1952).
G. Angel and R. Brannland, J. Electrochem. Soc. 99, 442 (1952).
G. Angel, T. Lunden, and R. Brannland, J. Electrochem. Soc. 100, 39 (1953).
G. Angel, T. Lunden, S. Dahlerus, and R. Brannland, J. Electrochem. Soc. 102, 124 (1955).
G. Angel, T. Lunden, S. Dahlerus, and R. Brannland, J. Electrochem. Soc. 102, 102 (1955).
G. Angel, R. Brannland, and S. Dahlems, J. Electrochem. Soc. 104, 167 (1957).
R.B. MacMullin, Electrolysis of Brines in Mercury Cells. In J.B. Sconce (ed.), Chlorine, Its Manufacture, Properties, and Uses, Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., Huntington, NY (1972).
A. Czernotzky, Acta Chim. Acad. Sci., Hungary 18, 167 (1959).
K. Hass, Electrochem. Technol. 5, 246 (1967).
WE. Cowley, B. Lott, and J.H. Entwisle, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. 41, 372 (1963).
Z.J. Colón, Brine Impurity Effect in Mercury Cells, Seventh Annual Electrode Corporation Chlorine/Chlorate Industry Seminar, Cleveland, OH (1991).
F. Hine, M. Yasuda, and K. Fujita, J. Electrochem. Soc. 128, 2314 (1981).
R.C. Carlson, The Effects of Brine Impurities on Dimensionally Stable Anodes, Fourteenth Annual ELTECH Chlorine/Chlorate Industry Seminar, Cleveland, OH (1998).
J.T. Keating and H.M.B. Gerner, High Current Density Operation-The Behavior of Ion Exchange Membranes in Chlor-Alkali Electrolyzers. In S. Sealey (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 7, Royal Society of Chemistry, London (1998), p. 135.
Nafion® Product Information, Bulletin 97-01, DuPont Co., Wilmington, DE (1999).
J.T. Keating and K.-J. Behling, Brine, Impurities, and Membrane Chlor-Alkali Cell Performance. In N.M. Prout and J.S. Moorhouse (eds), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 4, Elsevier Applied Science, London (1990), p. 125.
J.H.G. van der Stegen and P. Breuning, The Formation of Precipitates of Iron Ions inside Perfluorinated Membranes during Chlor-Alkali Electrolysis. In S. Sealey (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 7, Royal Society of Chemistry, London (1998), p. 123.
Y Ogata, S. Uchiyama, M. Hayashi, M. Yasuda, and F. Hine, J. Appl. Electrochem. 20, 555 (1990).
F. Hine, S. Yoshizawa, and S. Okada, J. Chem. Soc. Jpn, Industrial Chemistry Section 62, 769 (1959).
F. Hine, T. Sugimori, S. Yoshizawa, and S. Okada, J. Chem. Soc. Jpn, Industrial Chemistry Section 62, 955 (1959).
F. Hine, T. Sugimori, S. Yoshizawa, and S. Okada, J. Chem. Soc. Jpn, Industrial Chemistry Section 62, 773 (1959).
F. Hine, T. Sugimori, S. Yoshizawa, and S. Okada, J. Chem. Soc. Jpn, Industrial Chemistry Section 62, 778 (1959).
A.F. Boryachek, E.T. Gromova, and O.N. Kaluga. Zh. Prikl. Khim, 41(7) 1606 (1968).
M.M. Silver, New Desulfation System (NDS) for Chlor-Alkali Plant, 35th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, New Orleans, LA (1992).
FMC Soda Ash Storage Options and Technical Data, http://www.fmcchemicals.com, FMC Corporation, Philadelphia, PA (2002), p. 8.
Material Safety Data Sheet 497-19-8, Rev. 3, http://www.fmc.com/msds/70729xup, FMC Wyoming Corp., Philadelphia, PA (2001).
C.T. Bryant, Flocculant Addition-NOPCO 154, publication information not given (1978).
More than You Really Want To Know about Polymers, Technical Information Bulletin, Tramfloc, Inc., Tempe, AZ (2001).
J.A. Seifert, Chem. Eng. 94(14), 11 (1987).
H.S. Coe and G.H. Clevenger, Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Engrs. 55, 356 (1916).
GJ. Kynch, Trans. Far. Soc. 48, 166 (1952).
E.B. Fitch, AIChE J. 25, 913 (1979).
W.P. Talmadge and E.B. Fitch, Ind. Eng. Chem. 47, 38 (1953).
E.B. Fitch, Chem. Eng. 90(8), 83 (1971).
A.S. Foust, L.A. Wenzel, C.W. Clump, L. Maus, and L.B. Andersen, Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1980), pp. 631–635.
E.B. Fitch, AIChE J. 39, 27 (1993).
Handbook of Chemicals for Water Treatment, Kurita Water Industries, Ltd., Tokyo (1989), p. 188.
F. Hine and K. Nishiyama, Soda to Enso (Soda and Chlorine) 26, 197 (1975).
F. W. Spillers, Brine-Treating Solids Disposal by Recycling to a Brine Well, Proceedings, Oronzio DeNora Symposium on Chlorine Technology (Venice), Oronzio DeNora Impianti Elettrochimici S.p.A., Milan (1979), p. 221.
W.E. Timmins, Eimco Process Equipment Co., Personal Communication (1985).
Soda Handbook 1998, Japan Soda Industry Association, Tokyo (1998), p. 148.
Soda Handbook 1998, Japan Soda Industry Association, Tokyo (1998), p. 146.
FlexKlearTMInclined Plate Settlers, product bulletin Form #TV6-O5D1, Eimco Process Equipment Company, Salt Lake City, UT (2001).
Delta-Stak Clarifiers, product bulletin Form #O-111, Eimco Process Equipment Div., Baker Hughes Inc., Salt Lake City, UT (1997).
J.M. Dugan, Dugan Environmental Services Co., Personal Communication, (1988).
S. Ergun, Chem. Eng. Progr. 48(2), 89 (1952).
A. Macías-Machín and DJ. Santana, Chem. Eng. 105(9), 159 (1998).
Soda Handbook 1998, Japan Soda Industry Association, Tokyo (1998), p. 149.
A.S. Foust, L.A. Wenzel, C.W. Clump, L. Maus, and L.B. Andersen, Principles of Unit Operations, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1980), pp. 667 et seq.
P.C. Carman, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., London 57, 225T (1938).
F. Hine, Y. Yagishita, and N. Yokota, Soda to Enso (Soda and Chlorine) 29, 330 (1978).
G.G. Brown and Associates, Unit Operations, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1950), p. 251.
M.J. Raimer, Back-Pulse Filtration using Gore-Tex® Membrane Filter Cloths. In J. Moorhouse (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 8, Blackwell Science, Oxford (2001), p. 272.
K.J. Julkowski, DrM Filters, Personal Communication (2003).
D.J. Gosser and R. J. Horvath, Ion Exchange Systems for Membrane Cell Chlor-Alkali Plants, 27th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Washington, DC (1984).
I.F. White and T.F. O’Brien, Secondary Brine Treatment: Ion-Exchange Purification of Brine. In N.M. Prout and J.S. Moorhouse (eds), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 4, Elsevier Applied Science, London (1990), p. 271.
R. Szilagyi, Treatment of Brine for Membrane Cell Feed, 37th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Washington, DC (1994).
J.-J. Wolff and R.E. Anderson, presented at AIChE meeting, Orlando, FL (1982).
C. Motohashi, Soda to Enso (Soda and Chlorine) 34, 516 (1983); 36, 291 (1985).
J.-J. Wolff, Duolite Brine Purification, Brochure IE-D/285, Rohm & Haas Co., Philadelphia, PA (2001).
Chelation Systems, Technical Brochure D145T, Purolite International Limited, Pontyclun, UK (2000).
T. Murata and J. Ungar, Secondary Brine Purification, Dianex Systems (1986).
J.-J. Wolff, Ion-Exchange Purification of Feed Brine for Chlor-Alkali Electrolysis Cells, Rohm & Haas Co., Philadelphia, PA (1985).
K. Yamaguchi, T. Ichisaka, and I. Kumagai, The Control of Brine Impurities in the Membrane Process in the Chlor-Alkali Industry, 29th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Tampa, FL (1986).
T.F. O’ Brien, Brine Supply Requirements in Plant Conversions, 46th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Chicago, IL (2003).
Amberlite® IRC 747 Industrial Grade Chelating Resin, Preliminary Product Data Sheet IE-643 ED3, Rohm & Haas Co., Philadelphia, PA (2001).
Diaion CR11 Resin-General Regeneration Protocol, Mitsubishi Chemical America, White Plains, NY (1996).
H.C. Williford, Personal Communication (2004).
T.F.O’ Brien, Practical Considerations in Design of Brine Ion-Exchange Systems, 2nd Nafion® Global Users Forum, Fayetteville, NC (1993).
General Information on Nafion® Membrane for Electrolysis, Product Bulletin 97-0, E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Fayetteville, NC (1999).
D. Bergner, J. Appl. Electrochem. 20, 716 (1990).
R.W. Potter and M.A. Clynne, J. Chem. Eng. Data 25, 50 (1980).
R. Rodermund, Chlorate Destruction in the Brine System of a Chlor-Alkali Electrolysis Plant, Dissertation, University of Dortmund (1983), p. 66.
R.G. Bates, Determination of pH; Theory and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1964).
J.T. Keating, Understanding Membrane Operating Conditions. In T.C. Wellington, (ed.), Modern ChlorAlkali Technology, vol. 5, Elsevier Applied Science, London (1992), p. 69.
Hydrochloric Acid Storage and Piping Systems, Pamphlet 163, Edition 1, The Chlorine Institute, Washington, DC (2001).
J. Heiss, Diamond Crystal Salt Co., Personal Communication (1983).
L.F. Becnel, Jr., United Brine Services Co., Personal Communication (2003).
L.F. Becnel, Jr., Ultra-Pure Evaporated Salt for Membrane Chlor-Alkali Plants, 46th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Chicago, IL (2003).
C. Moser, Control of Sulphate in the Production of Crystal Sodium Chlorate. In N.M. Prout and J.S. Moorhouse (eds), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 4, Elsevier Applied Science, London (1990), p. 325.
K. Saiki, N. Yoshida, M.M. Silver, and I. Kumagai, New Desulfation System for Chlor-Alkali Plant. In R.W. Curry, (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 4, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge (1995), p. 82.
T. Kishi and T. Matsuoka, Process to Remove Sulfate, Iodide and Silica from Brine. In J. Moorhouse (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 8, Blackwell Science, Oxford (2001), p. 152.
K. Maycock, Z. Twardowski, and J. Ulan, A New Method to Remove Sodium Sulphate from Brine. In S. Sealey (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 7, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge (1998), p. 214.
C. Kotzo, A. Barr, and F. Muret, Sulfate Removal from Brine, 43rd Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Houston, TX (2000).
J. Duffy, Chem. Eng. 110(6), 35 (2003).
N. Eckert, Chemetics, Personal Communication (2003).
M.Z. Rogozovskaya and T.L. Kononchuk, Zh. Prikl. Khim. 54, 1708 (1981).
R. Schäfer, U.S. Patent 4,132,759 (1979).
D.S. Kaufmann (ed.), Sodium Chloride, ACS Monograph 145, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York (1960), p. 330.
C.W. Blount, The Solubility of Anhydrite in the System CaSO4-H2O and CaSO4-NaCl-H2O and its Geological Significance, University of California at Los Angeles, Ph.D. Dissertation 65-15, (1965), p. 182.
W.M. Madgin and D.A. Swales, J. Appl. Chem. 6, 482 (1956).
C.C. Templeton, J. Chem. Eng. Data 5(4), 514 (1960).
S. Pribicevic, Brine Preparation for Chlorine Production, Chlorine Bicentennial Symposium, The Electrochemical Society, Princeton, NJ (1974).
M. Pourbaix, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, Pergamon Press, New York (1966), pp. 307–342.
HSC chemistry software, Versions 3 and 4, Outokumpu Research Oy, Espoo (1999).
M. Pourbaix, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, Pergamon Press, New York (1966), p. 458.
D.S. Novak, U.S. Patent 4,274,929 (1981).
T.C. Bissot, Extended Abstracts, Vol. 86–91, The Electrochemical Society meeting, Boston. The Electrochemical Society, Philadelphia, PA (1986), p. 643.
M. Pourbaix, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, Pergamon Press, New York (1966), p. 168.
P.A. Brook, Corrosion Sci. 12, 297 (1972).
F.R. Minz, HC1 Electrolysis Technology for Recycling Chlorine, Conference on Electrochemical Processing, Glasgow (1993).
L.L. Burton, DuPont presentation to customers on membrane developments (2000).
M. Accomazzo, Ion Pure Corp., Personal Communication, PA (1991).
B. Parekh, Chem. Eng. 98(1), 70 (1991).
Amersorb Carbonaceous Adsorbents, Technical note, Rohm & Haas Co., Philadelphia, PA (1991).
W.C. Ying, Personal Communication (2001).
J.M. Silva, U.S. Patent 6,214,235B1 (2001).
J.M. Silva, U.S. Patent 6,103,092 (2000).
Amberlite IRC-718, brochure, Rohm & Haas Co., Philadelphia, PA (1998).
W.J. Blogoslawski, C. Brown, W.W. Rhodes, and M. Broadhurst, Proceedings, First Symposium on Ozone for Water and Wastewater Treatment, Cleveland, OH (1975).
B. Wang, J. Tran, J. Yin, and G. Shi, Ozone Sci. Eng. 11, 227 (1989).
S.H. Lin and C.L. Wu, J Environ. Sci. Health A30(7), 1445 (1995).
V. Janda and J. Rudovsky, J. Water SRT-Aqua 43, 120 (1994).
L.D. Benefield, J.F. Judkins, and B.L. Weand, Process Chemistry for Water and Wastewater Treatment, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1982).
J.C. Morris and R.A. Isaac. In R. Jolley et al. (eds), Water Chlorination, vol. 4, Ann Arbor Science Publ., Ann Arbor, MI (1983), Chap. 2.
J.B. Bratcher, Nitrogen Compounds in Brine and their Fate, 43rd Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Houston, TX (2000).
A. Harahambous, E. Maliou, and M. Malamia, Water Sci. Tech. 25, 139 (1992).
M.P. Bernai and J.M. Lopes-Real, Bio-Resour. Technol. 43, 27 (1993).
J. Koon and W.J. Kaufman, Water Pollution Control Fed. 47, 448 (1975).
M. Gespard and A. Martin, Water Res. 17, 3 (1983).
C.W. Williford, W.J. Reynolds, and M. Quinos, Appl. Clay Sci. 6, 277 (1992).
S.H. Lin and C.-L. Wu, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 35, 353 (1996).
Th. El-Nabaraway, G.A. Fagal, and L.B. Khalil, Adsorp. Sci. Technol 13, 7 (1996).
A.M. Yousser, M.R. Mostafa, and E.M. Dorgham, Bull Soc. Chim. Fr., (November–December) 741 (1989).
G.B. Wickramanayake, S.K. Khabiri, and E.J. Voudrais, 43rd Purdue Industrial Waste Conference Proceedings, Lewis Publications, Inc., Chelsea, MI (1989), p. 407.
W.V. Collentro and A.W. Collentro, Patent Appl. US 95-512108 (1995).
M.J. Semmens, D.M. Foster, and E.L. Cussler, J. Memb. Sci. 51, 127 (1990).
S. Bruckenstein, U.S. Patent 4,415,282 (1979).
S.D. Fritts, T.V. Bommaraju, and W.W. Ruthel, U.S. Patent 5,215,632 (1993).
A. Hanneuse and L. Chiti, Improvements in Brine Quality: Removal of Bromide, Iodide and Chlorate. In S. Sealey (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 7, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge (1998), p. 157.
T.H. Hutchinson and D.J. vanWijk, Bromate and Chlorate-Evaluation of Potential Effects in Aquatic Organisms and Derivation of Environmental Quality Standards. In S. Sealey (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 7, Royal Society of Chemistry, London (1998), p. 26.
ANSI/NSF 60-2001, Issue 16 (revised), Chapter 6, Disinfection and Oxidation Chemicals, National Science Foundation, Washington, DC (2001).
H. Shiroki, U.S. Patent 4,483,754 (1984).
M. Pourbaix, Atlas of Electrochemical Equilibria in Aqueous Solutions, Pergamon Press, New York (1966), p. 614.
T.V. Bommaraju, Unpublished Results (2002).
P.A. Lyday, Iodine and Iodine Compounds, Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, A14, 381 (1989).
A. Lauterbach and G. Ober, Iodine and Iodine Compunds. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed., vol. 14, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1995) p. 709.
Data submitted by G.M. Shannon, INEOS Chlor Ltd. (2002).
J.T. Keating, E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Personal Communication (2004).
Nafion® Technical Information Bulletin 91-08, E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Inc., Fayetteville, NC (undated).
D.T. Hobbs and M.A. Ebra, Electrochemical Engineering Applications, AIChE Symposium Series 254, vol. 83, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, NY (1987).
S.H. Lin and Y.L. Yen, Environ. Technol. 18, 65 (1997).
S.H. Lin and C.L. Wu, J. Environ. Sci. Health A30(7), 1445 (1997).
T.F. O’Brien, Dechlorination of Brines for Membrane Cell Operation. In N.M. Prout and J.S. Moorhouse (eds), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 4, Elsevier Applied Science, London (1990), p. 251.
M.S. Sherrill and E.F. Izard, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 53, 1667 (1931).
T.R. Bott and S. Schulz, J. Appl. Chem. 17, 356 (1967).
N. Yokota, Chem. Eng. Jpn 22, 476 (1958).
N. Yokota, Ph.D. Thesis, Kyoto University (1958).
N. Yokota, Soda to Enso (Soda and Chlorine), 9, 495 (1958).
N. Yokota, J. Inst. Chem. Engrs. (Jpn), 23, 438 (1959).
N. Yokota, J. Inst. Chem. Engrs. (Jpn), 25, 171 (1961).
F. Hine and N. Yokota, Abstract No. 119, Electrochemical Society meeting, Cleveland, OH (1996).
S. Bengston and I. Bjerle, Chem. Eng. Sci. 30, 1429 (1975).
R.L. Miron, Removal of Aqueous Oxygen by Chemical Means, International Corrosion Forum, Atlanta, GA(1979).
G.C. White, Handbook of Chlorination, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1972), pp. 343–347.
H.F. Johnstone, H.J. Read, and H.C. Blankmeyer, Ind. Eng. Chem. 30(1), 101 (1938).
P.J. Durrant and B. Durrant, Introduction to Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1970), p. 855.
M. Schmidt and G. Talsky, Angew. Chem. 70, 312 (1958).
S.L. Bean, Thiosulfates. In Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed., vol. 24, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York (1997), p. 51.
Water Treatment Uses and Application-Dechlorination. Allied Corporation product bulletin, Syracuse, NY (1985).
D. Mannig and G. Scherer, Hydrogen Peroxide in the Chlor-Alkali Industry, 30th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Washington, DC (1987).
Technical Data Sheet: Storage and Handling of Hydrogen Peroxide, Solvay Interox, Inc., Houston, Tx (2000).
Technical Data Sheet: Materials of Construction for the Storage of Hydrogen Peroxide, Solvay Interox, Inc., Houston, Tx (2001).
J. Mackenzie, Chem. Eng. 97(6), 84 (1990).
B.G. Martin and P. Kiser, reproduced from Industrial Water Treatment 26(6) (1994).
G.W. Ayling and H.M. Castrantas, Chem. Eng. 88(24), 79 (1981).
D.G. Hager and M.E. Flentje, J. AWWA 57, 1440 (1965).
V.L. Snoeyink and M.T. Suidan. In J.D. Johnson (ed.), Disinfection-Water and Wastewater, Ann Arbor Science Publ., Ann Arbor, MI (1975).
G.M. Forster, Brine Dechlorination by Activated Carbon, 29th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Tampa, FL (1986).
V. Magee, Proc. Soc. Water Treatment and Examination (England) 5, 17 (1956).
M.T. Suidan, V.L. Snoeyink, and R.A. Schmitz, Environ. Sci. Technol. 11, 785 (1977).
D.L. Caldwell, Catalytic Destruction of Hypochlorite in Chlorine Plant Effluents, Abstract No. 441, Electrochemical Society meeting, Seattle, WA (1978).
J.R. Hodges, K-Cat Process for Brine/Water Dechlorination, 30th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Washington, DC (1987).
P.EJ. Abbott, M. Carlin, M.E. Fakley, M.E. Hancock, and F. King, ICI „Hydecat“ Process for the Catalytic Destruction of Hypochlorite Effluent Streams. In T.C. Wellington (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 5, Elsevier Applied Science, London (1992), p. 23.
E.H. Stitt, F.E. Hancock, and K. Kelly, New Process Options for Hypochlorite Destruction. In J. Moorhouse (ed.), Modern Chlor-Alkali Technology, vol. 8, Blackwell Science, Oxford (2001), p. 315.
Soda Handbook 1998, Japan Soda Industry Association. Tokyo (1998), p. 177.
P.M. Mayo, Conversion of Mercury-Cell Plants to Membrane-Cell Technology, 36th Chlorine Institute Plant Operations Seminar, Washington, DC (1993).
R. Rodermund, Chlorate Destruction in the Brine System of a Chlor-Alkali Electrolysis Plant, Dissertation, University of Dortmund (1983), pp. 58 et seq.
Y. Samejima, M. Shiga, T. Kano, and T. Kishi, U.S. Patent 4,643,808 (1987).
S. Sarangapani and TV. Bommaraju, Unpublished Results (1999).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2005 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
O’Brien, T.F., Bommaraju, T.V., Hine, F. (2005). Brine Preparation and Treatment. In: Handbook of Chlor-Alkali Technology. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48624-5_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48624-5_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Boston, MA
Print ISBN: 978-0-306-48623-4
Online ISBN: 978-0-306-48624-1
eBook Packages: Chemistry and Materials ScienceChemistry and Material Science (R0)