Measurement Issues in the Empirical Study of Resilience

An Overview
  • Suniya S. Luthar
  • Gretta Cushing
Part of the Longitudinal Research in the Social and Behavioral Sciences: An Interdisciplinary Series book series (LRSB)

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  1. Achenbach, T. M., McConaughy, S. H., & Howell, C.T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213–232.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
  3. Anastasi, A. (1982). Psychological Testing (Fifth edition). New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
  4. Anthony, E. J. (1987). Risk, vulnerability, and resilience: An overview. In E. J. Anthony & B. J. Cohler (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 348). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  5. Baldwin, A. L., Baldwin, C., & Cole, R. E. (1990). Stress-resistant families and stress resistant children. In J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 257–280). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  6. Baldwin, A. L., Baldwin, C. P., Kasser, T., Zax, M., Sameroff, A., & Seifer, R. (1993). Contextual risk and resiliency during late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 741–761.Google Scholar
  7. Baltes, P. B., Reese, H. W., & Lipsitt, L. P. (1980). Life-span developmental psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 65–110.Google Scholar
  8. Beardslee, W. R., & Podorefsky, D. (1988). Resilient adolescents whose parents have serious affective and other psychiatric disorders: Importance of self-understanding and relationships. American Journal of Psychiatry, 145(1), 63–69.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. Blackson, T. C., Tarter, R. E., Martin, C. S., & Moss, H. B. (1994). Temperament mediates the effects of family history of substance abuse on externalizing and internalizing child behavior. American Journal on Addictions, 3(1), 58–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  10. Brown, G. W., & Harris, T. 0. (1978). Social origins of depression: A study of psychiatric disorders in women. London: Tavistock Publications.Google Scholar
  11. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1986). Ecology of the family as a context for human development: Research perspectives. Developmental Psychology, 22, 723–742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  12. Brook, J. S., Cohen, I?, Whiteman, M., & Gordon, A. S. (1992). Psychosocial risk factors in the transition from moderate to heavy use or abuse of drugs. In M Glantz & R. Pickens (Eds.), Vulnerability to drug abuse (pp. 211–253). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
  13. Brunswick, A. F., Lewis, C. S., & Messeri, P. A. (1991). A life span perspective on drug use and affective distress in an African-American sample. Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 123–135.Google Scholar
  14. Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. In Sage University Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences (pp. 7–17). Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
  15. Carro, M. G,, Grant, K. E., Gotlib, I. H., & Compas, B. E. (1993). Postpartum depression and child development: An investigation of mothers and fathers as sources of risk and resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 567–579.Google Scholar
  16. Casella, L., & Motta, R. W. (1990). Comparison of characteristics of Vietnam veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Reports, 67, 595–605.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Brooks-Gunn, J., & Zamsky, E. S. (1994). Young African-American multigenerational families in poverty: Quality of mothering and grandmothering. Child Development, 65(2), 373–393.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Chassin, L., Pillow, D. R., Curran, P. J., & Molina, B. S. (1993). Relation of parental alcoholism to early adolescent substance use: A test of three mediating mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102(1), 3–19.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  19. Chess, S., & Thomas, A. (1990). Continuities and discontinuities in temperament. In L. Robins & M. Rutter (Eds.), Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp. 205–220). Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  20. Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F A., Lynch, M., & Holt, K. D. (1993). Resilience in maltreated children: Processes leading to adaptive outcome. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 629–647.Google Scholar
  21. Coddington, R. D. (1972). The significance of life events as etiologic factors in the diseases of children. II: A study of a normal population. Journal of Psychosomaric Research, 16, 205–213Google Scholar
  22. Cohen, L. H., (1988). Measurement of life events. In L. H. Cohen (Ed.), Life events and psychological functioning: Theoretical and methodological issues (pp. 11–30). Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
  23. Conrad, M., & Hammen, C. (1993). Protective and resource factors in high and low-risk children: A comparison of children with unipolar, bipolar, medically ill, and normal mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 593–607.Google Scholar
  24. Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., & Wyman, P. A. (1992a). Resilience among profoundly stressed urban school children. In M. Kessler, S. E. Glodston & J. M. Joffe (Eds.), The present and future of prevention (pp. 155–168). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
  25. Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., Wyman, P. A. (1992b). Similarity of parent and child self-views in stress-affected and stress-resilient urban families. Acta Paedopsychiatrica: International Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(4), 193–197.Google Scholar
  26. Crittendon, P. (1985). Maltreated infants: Vulnerability and resilience. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 26(1), 85–96.Google Scholar
  27. Dohrenwend, B. I?, & Dohrenwend, B. S. (1978). Some issues in research on stressful life events. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 166, 7–15.Google Scholar
  28. Egeland, B., & Kreutzer, T. (1991). A longitudinal study of the effects of maternal stress and protective factors on the development of high risk children. In A. Greene, E. Cummings & K. Karaker (Eds.), Life-span developmental psychology: Perspectives on stress and coping (pp. 61–84). Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  29. Egeland, B., Carlson, E., & Sroufe, L. A. (1993). Resilience as process. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 517–528.Google Scholar
  30. Egeland, B., & Kalkoske, M. (1993). Continuity as a function of risk status: Infant attachment to the early school years. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, New Orleans.Google Scholar
  31. Elder, G. H., & Clipp, E. C. (1989). Combat experience and emotional health: Impairment and resilience in later life. Journal of Personality, 57(2), 311–341.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. Emshoff, J, G. (1989). A preventive intervention with children of alcoholics. Prevention in Human Services, 225–253.Google Scholar
  33. Endicott, J., & Spitzer, R. L. (1978). A diagnostic interview: The Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 137, 837–844.Google Scholar
  34. Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine. Science, 196, 129–135.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Farber, E., & Egeland, B. (1987). Abused children: Can they be invulnerable. In J. Anthony & B. Cohler (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 253–288). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  36. Garfinkle, I., & McLanahan, S. S. (1986). Single mothers and their children: A new American dilemma. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.Google Scholar
  37. Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55, 97–111.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  38. Garrett, P., Ng’andu, N., & Ferron, J. (1994). Poverty experiences of young children and the quality of their home environments. Child Development, 65(2), 331–345.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. Gelles, R. (1973). Child abuse as psychopathology: A sociological critique and reformulation. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 43, 611–621.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. Gershon, E. S., & Guroff, J. J. (1984). Information from relatives. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48,173–180.Google Scholar
  41. Gersten, J. C., Langner, T. S., Eisenberg, J. G., & Simcha-Fagen, 0. (1977). An evaluation of the etiologic role of stressful life-change events in psychological disorders. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 18, 228–244.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. Gest, S. D., Neemann, J., Hubbard, J. J., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1993). Parenting quality, adversity, and conduct problems in adolescence: Testing process-oriented models of resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 663–682.Google Scholar
  43. Grossman, F. K., Beinashowitz, L., Sakurai, M., Finnin, L., & Flaherty, M. (1992). Risk and resilience in young adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 21(5), 529–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  44. Hart, E. L., Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., & Hanson, K. S. (1994). Criterion validity of informants in the diagnosis of disruptive behavior disorders in children: A preliminary study. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62(2), 410–414.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. Heer, D. M. (1985). Effects of sibling number on child outcome. Annual Review of Sociology, 11, 27–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  46. Herrenkohl, E. C., Herrenkohl, R. C., & Egolf, B. (1994). Resilient early school-age children from maltreating homes: Outcomes in late adolescence. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 64(2), 301–309.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. Hobfall, S. E., & Lerman, M. (1988). Personal relationships, personal attributes, and stress resistance: Mothers’ reactions to their child’s illness. American Journal of Community Psychology, 16(4), 565–589.Google Scholar
  48. Hobfall, S. E., London, P., & Orr, E. (1988). Mastery, intimacy, and stress resistance during war. Journal of Community Psychology, 16, 317–331.Google Scholar
  49. Holahan, C. J., & Moos, R. H. (1991). Life stressors, personal and social resources, and depression: A 4-year structural model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100(l), 31–38.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  50. Holmes, T. H.,& Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  51. Hops, H., Tildesley, E., & Liechtenstein, E. (1990). Parent-adolescent problem-solving interactions and drug use. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 16, 239–258.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. Johnson, H. L., Glassman, M. B., Fiks, K. B., & Rosen, T. S. (1990). Resilient children: Individual differences in developmental outcome of children born to drug abusers. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 151(4), 523–539.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  53. Johnson, J. H., & McCutcheon, S. M. (1980). Assessing life stress in older children and adolescents: Preliminary findings with the Life Events Checklist. In I. G. Sarason & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety (pp. 111–125). Washington, DC: Hemisphere.Google Scholar
  54. Johnson, J. H. (1986). Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
  55. Johnson, V., & Pandina, R. J. (1993). Affectivity, family drinking history, and the development of problem drinking: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 66, 2055–2073.Google Scholar
  56. Kandel, D. B., & Davies, M. (1992). Progression to regular marijuana involvement: Phenomenology and risk factors for near-daily use. In M Glantz & R. Pickens (Eds), Vulnerability to drug abuse (pp. 211–253). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.Google Scholar
  57. Kaplan, H. B., Johnson, R. J., & Bailey, C. A. (1988). Explaining adolescent drug use: An elaboration strategy for structural equation modeling. Psychiatry, 51(2), 142–163.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. Kazdin, A. E. (1990). Childhood depression. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 31, 121–160.Google Scholar
  59. Kosten, T. A., Anton, S. F., & Rounsaville, B. J. (1992). Ascertaining psychiatric diagnoses with the family history method in a substance abuse population. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 26(2), 135–147.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. Lakatos, I. (1978). The methodology of scientific research programs: Philosophical papers (Vol. 1). J. Morrall & G. Currie (Eds.), New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  61. Leckman, J. F., Sholomskas, D., Thompson, W. D., Belanger, A., & Weissman, M. M. (1982). Best estimate of lifetime psychiatric diagnosis: A methodological study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 879–883.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. Loo, C., Tong, B., & True, R. (1989). A bitter bean: Mental health status and attitudes in Chinatown. Journal of Community Psychology, 17(4), 283–296.Google Scholar
  63. Luthar, S. S. (1993). Annotation: Methodological and conceptual issues in research on childhood resilience. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 34(4), 441–453.Google Scholar
  64. Luthar, S. S., (1991). Vulnerability and resilience: A study of high risk adolescents. Child Development, 62, 600–616.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. Luthar, S. S., Cushing, G., Merikangas, K. R., & Rounsaville, B. J. (1994). Psychiatric disorders among children of addicts. Paper to be presented at the 1995 annual meetings of the American Psychiatric Association, Miami.Google Scholar
  66. Luthar, S. S., & MacMahon, T. (1994). Doing well in whose eyes? Peer reputation among innercity teens [Submitted.].Google Scholar
  67. Luthar, S. S., & Zigler, E. (3991). Vulnerability and competence: A review of research on resilience in childhood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 6–22.Google Scholar
  68. Luthar, S. S., Doernberger, C. H., & Zigler, E. (1993). Resilience is not a unidimensional construct: Insights from a prospective study of inner-city adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 703–717.Google Scholar
  69. Marmor, J. (1983). Systems thinking in psychiatry: Some theoretical and clinical implications. American Journal of Psychiatry, 140, 833–838.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  70. Masten, A. S., Morison, P., Pellegrini, D., & Tellegen, A. (1990). Competence under stress: Risk and protective factors. In J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 236–256). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  71. Masten, A. S. (1989). Resilience in development: Implications of the study of successful adaptation for developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. The emergence of a discipline (pp. 261–294). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
  72. Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and development: Contributions from the children who overcome adversity. Development and Psychopathology, 2, 425–444.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  73. Masten, A. S., Garmezy, N., Tellegen, A., Pellegrini, D. S., Larkin, K., & Larsen, A. (1988). Competence and stress in school children: The moderating effects of individual and family qualities. Journal for Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 29(6), 745–764.Google Scholar
  74. Masten, A. S., Neemann, J., & Adenas, S. (1994). Life events and adjustment in adolescents: The significance of event independence, desirability, and chronicity. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4(1), 71–97.Google Scholar
  75. Meyer-Probst, B., Rosler, H., & Teichmann, H. (1983). Biological and psychosocial risk factors and development during childhood. In D. Magnusson & V. L. Allen (Eds.), Human development: An interactional perspective (pp. 243–259). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
  76. Mulholland, D. J., Watt, N. F., Philpott, A., & Sarlin, N. (1991). Academic performance in children of divorce: Psychological resilience and vulnerability. Psychiatry, 54, 268–280.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  77. Neighbors, B., Forehand, R., & McVicar, D. (1993). Resilient adolescents and interparental conflict. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63(3), 462–471.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  78. Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1990). Antecedents and consequences of cocaine use: An eight-year study from early adolescence to young adulthood. In Robins. L. & M. Rutter (Eds.), Straight and devious pathways from childhood to adulthood (pp. 158–181). Melbourne, Australia: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  79. O’Grady, D., & Metz, J. R. (1987). Resilience in children at high risk for psychological disorder. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 12(1), 3–23.Google Scholar
  80. Orvaschel, H., Thompson, W. D., Belanger, A., Prusoff, B. A., & Kidd, K. K. (1982). Comparison of the family history method to direct interview: Factors affecting the diagnosis of depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 4,49–59.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. Osborn, A. E (1990). Resilient children: A longitudinal study of high achieving socially disadvantaged children. Early Child Development and Care, 62, 23–47.Google Scholar
  82. Parker, R., & Collmer, C. (1976). Child abuse: An interdisciplinary analysis. In E. M. Hetherington (Ed.), Review of child development research (Vol. 5). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
  83. Pedhazur, E. J., & Schmelkin, L. P. (1991). Measurement, design and analysis: An integrated approach. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
  84. Peterson, P. L., Hawkins, D. J., Abbott, R. D., & Catalano, R. F. (1994). Disentangling the effects of parental drinking, family management, and parental alcohol norms on current drinking by black and white adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 4(2), 203–227.Google Scholar
  85. Pianta, R., Egeland, B., & Stroufe, A. (1990). Maternal stress and children’s development: Prediction of school outcomes and identification of protective factors. In J. E. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. Nuechterlein & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 215–235). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  86. Puig-Antich, J., Orvaschel, H., & Tabrizi, M. A. (1980). The schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-epidemiologic version (Kiddie-SA DS-E), ed 3. New York: New York State Psychiatric Institute.Google Scholar
  87. Quinton, D., Pickles, A., Maughan, B., & Rutter, M. (1993). Partners, peers, and pathways: Assortative pairing and continuities in conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 763–783.Google Scholar
  88. Quinton, D., Rutter, M., & Liddle, C. (1984). Institutional rearing, parenting difficulties, and marital support. Psychological Medicine, 14, 107–124.PubMedCrossRefGoogle Scholar
  89. Radke-Yarrow, M., & Sherman, T. (1990). Hard growing: Children who survive. In J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 97–119). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  90. Radke-Yarrow, M., & Brown, E. (1993). Resilience and vulnerability in children of multiple-risk families. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 581–592.Google Scholar
  91. Reich, W., & Welner, Z. (1988). Diagnostic interview for children and adolescents. Unpublished manuscript, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.Google Scholar
  92. Reynolds, W. M., & Graves, A. (1989). Reliability of children’s reports of depressive symptomatology. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 17, 647–655.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  93. Richters, J. E., & Martinez, P. E. (1993). Violent communities, family choices, and children’s chances: An algorithm for improving the odds. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 609–627.Google Scholar
  94. Richters, J. E., & Weintraub, S. (1990). Beyond diathesis: Toward an understanding of high risk environments. In J. E. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. Nuechterlein & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 67–96). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  95. Robins, L. N., & Regier, D. A. (1991). Psychiatric disorders in America: The epidemiologic catchment area study. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
  96. Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57(3), 316–331.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. Rutter, M. (1980). Introduction. In M. Rutter (Ed.), Scientific foundations of developmental psychiatry (pp. 49–62). London: Heinemann.Google Scholar
  98. Rutter, M. (1983). Prevention of children’s psychosocial disorders: Myth and substance. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry & Child Development, 271–295.Google Scholar
  99. Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1977). Psychiatric disorder: Ecological factors and concepts of causation. In Ecological factors in human development. Amsterdam: North-Holland.Google Scholar
  100. Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1984). Long-term follow-up of women institutionalized in childhood: Factors promoting good functioning in adult life. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 2(3), 191–204.Google Scholar
  101. Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Barocas, R., Zax, M., & Greenspan, S. (1987). Intelligence quotient scores of 4-year-old children: Social-environmental risk factors. Pediatrics, 79(3), 343–350.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  102. Sameroff, A. J., & Seifer, R. (1990). Early contributors to developmental risk. In J. Rolf, A. S. Masten, D. Cicchetti, K. H. Nuechterlein & S. Weintraub (Eds.), Risk and protective factors in the development of psychopathology (pp. 52–66). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
  103. Seifer, R., & Sameroff, A. J. (1987). Multiple determinants of risk and invulnerability. In E. J. Anthony & B. J. Cohler (Eds.), The invulnerable child (pp. 51–59). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  104. Spencer, M. B., Cole, S. P., DuPree, D., Glymph, A., & Pierre, P. (1993). Self-efficacy among urban African American early adolescents: Exploring issues of risk, vulnerability, and resilience. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 719–739.Google Scholar
  105. Shuckit, M. A. (1994). Low level of response to alcohol as a predictor of future alcoholism. American Journal of Psychiatry, 251(2), 184–189.Google Scholar
  106. Spitzer, R. L., Endicott, J., & Robins, E. (1978). Research diagnostic criteria: Rationale and reliability. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36,733–782.Google Scholar
  107. Stice, E., Barrera, M., & Chassin, L. (1993). Relation of parental support and control to adolescents’ externalizing symptomatology and substance use: A longitudinal examination of curvilinear effects. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21(6), 609–629.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Zhang, Q., van Kammen, W., & Maguin, E. (1993). The double edge of protective and risk factors for delinquency: Interrelations and developmental patterns. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 683–701.Google Scholar
  109. Swaim, R. C., Oetting, E. R., Edwards, R. W., & Beauvais, E (1989). Links from emotional distress to adolescent drug use: A path model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57(2), 227–231.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  110. Swearingen, E. M., & Cohen, L. H. (1985). Life events and psychological distress: A prospective study of young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1045–1054.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  111. Thoits, P. (1983). Dimensions of life events that influence psychological distress: An evaluation and synthesis of the literature. In H. Kaplan (Ed.), Psychosocial stress: Trends in theory and research (pp. 33–103). New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
  112. Thompson, W. D., Orvaschel, H., Prusoff, B. A., & Kidd, B. A. (1982). An evaluation of the family history method for ascertaining psychiatric disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 53–58.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  113. Weissman, M. M., Merikangas, K. R., John, K., Wickramaratne, P., Prusoff, B. A., & Kidd, K. K. (1986). Family-genetic studies of psychiatric disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 43, 1104–1116.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  114. Wells, R. D., & Schwebel, A. I. (1987). Chronically ill children and their mothers: Predictors of resilience and vulnerability to hospitalization and surgical stress. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 8(2), 83–89.Google Scholar
  115. Werner, E. E. (1986). Resilient offspring of alcoholics. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 47(1), 34–40.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  116. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
  117. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible. New York: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
  118. Windle, M. (1990). A longitudinal study of antisocial behaviors in early adolescence as predictors of late adolescent substance use: Gender and ethnic group differences. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 86–91.CrossRefPubMedGoogle Scholar
  119. Work, W. C., Parker, G. R., & Cowen, E. L. (1990). The impact of life stressors on childhood adjustment: Multiple perspectives. Journal of Community Psychology, 18(1), 73–78.Google Scholar
  120. Wyman, P. A., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., & Kerley, J. H. (1993). The role of children’s future expectations in self-system functioning and adjustment to life stress: A prospective study of urban at-risk children. Development and Psychopathology, 5(4), 649–661.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
  121. Wyman, P. A., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., & Parker, G. R. (1991). Developmental and family milieu correlates of resilience in urban children who have experienced major life stress. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29(3), 405–426.Google Scholar
  122. Wyman, P. A., Cowen, E. L., Work, W. C., & Raoof, A. (1992). Interviews with children who experienced major life stress: Family and child attributes that predict resilient outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31(5), 904–910.Google Scholar
  123. Zigler, E. F., Lamb, M. E., & Child, I. L. (1982). Socialization and personality development (pp. 97–119). New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
  124. Zigler, E., & Child, I. L. (1969). Socialization. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (Eds), Handbook of social psychology (2nd ed.) (pp. 450–589). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
  125. Zigler, E., & Phillips, L. (1960). Social effectiveness and symptomatic behaviors. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 61, 231–238.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  126. Zigler, E., & Glick, M. (1986). A developmental approach to adult psychopathology. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
  127. Zimmerman, M. (1983). Methodological issues in the assessment of life events: A review of issues and research. Clinical Psychology Review, 3, 339–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Copyright information

© Kluwer Academic Publishers 2002

Authors and Affiliations

  • Suniya S. Luthar
    • 1
  • Gretta Cushing
    • 2
  1. 1.Department of Human Development, Teachers CollegeColumbia UniversityNew York
  2. 2.University of UtahSalt Lake City

Personalised recommendations