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Endangered Species and Fragile Ecosystems in the South China Sea pp 87–131Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

The International Frameworks for the Conservation of Biodiversity and of the Marine Environment

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Abstract

The Philippines, in its protests to China, invoked the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (“the Convention”), the Convention on Biological Diversity (“CBD”), and other international environmental agreements to preempt China’s rejections of its protests on the ground that China had sovereignty over the maritime areas in which Chinese nationals carried out their activities. The CBD framework is also useful not just because its concepts seemed more appropriate to describe the conduct of Chinese fishermen and China but also because the nature and jurisdictional scope of the obligations to conserve biodiversity seemed to be broader than those of the obligation to protect and preserve marine living resources under the Convention. Nevertheless, the Philippines did not present a claim under the CBD. The advantage of the Convention was that it provided for compulsory dispute settlement entailing binding decisions, while the CBD offered at most compulsory conciliation.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    South China Sea Arbitration, Memorial of the Philippines (30 March 2014), Annex 19, Memorandum from Erlinda F. Basilio, Acting Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (29 March 1995), vol. III, 216 (“MP”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 20, Memorandum from Lauro L. Baja, Jr., Assistant Secretary, Office of Asian and Pacific Affairs, Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (7 April 1995), vol. III, 223, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.

  2. 2.

    MP, Annex 28, Memorandum from Fact Finding Committee, National Police Commission, Republic of the Philippines , to Chairman and Members of the Regional Committee on Illegal Entrants for Region 1, Republic of the Philippines (28 January 1998), vol. III, 271–76, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; and MP, Annex 30, People of the Philippines v. Shin Ye Fen et al., Criminal Case No. RTC 2357-I, Decision, Regional Trial Court, Third Judicial Region, Branch 69, Iba, Zambales, Philippines (29 April 1998), vol. III, 283–86, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 31, People of the Philippines v. Wuh Tsu Kai, et al., Criminal Case No. RTC 2362-I, Decision, Regional Trial Court, Third Judicial Region, Branch 69, Iba, Zambales, Philippines (29 April 1998), vol. III, 287–90, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 32, People of the Philippines v. Zin Dao Guo, et al., Criminal Case No. RTC 2363-I, Decision, Regional Trial Court, Third Judicial Region, Branch 69, Iba, Zambales, Philippines (29 April 1998), vol. III, 291–94, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.

  3. 3.

    MP, Annex 29, Memorandum from Assistant Secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (23 March 1998), vol. III, 277–82, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.

  4. 4.

    MP, Annex 37, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-85-98-S (4 December 1998), vol. III, 315–19, https://files.pca-pa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 43, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-06-2001-S (13 February 2001), vol. III, 351–55, https://files.pca-pa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 45, Memorandum from Willy C. Gaa, Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines to Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Republic of the Philippines (14 February 2001), vol. III, 365–66, https://files.pca-pa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 47, Memorandum from the Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines, No. ZPE-09-2001-S (17 March 2001) vol. III, 378, https://files.pca-pa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 48, Memorandum from Josue L. Villa, Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (21 May 2001), vol. III, 390, https://files.pca-pa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; MP, Annex 51, Memorandum from Josue L. Villa, Embassy of the Republic of the Philippines in Beijing, to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines (19 August 2002), vol. III, 408, https://files.pca-pa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; and MP, Annex 58 Memorandum from the Secretary of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the President of the Republic of the Philippines (11 January 2006), vol. III, 483, https://files.pca-pa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20III%20%28Annexes%201-60%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.

  5. 5.

    United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, concluded at Montego Bay on 10 December, entered into force on 16 November 1994, http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm, accessed 21 March 2019.

  6. 6.

    MP, Annex 45, vol. III, 365–66; MP, Annex 205, Memorandum from Erlinda F. Basilio, Assistant Secretary of Foreign Affairs to the Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 11 January 2006, annexed to Memorandum from the Secretary of Foreign Affairs to the President of the Republic of the Philippines (11 January 2006), vol. VI, 377–81, https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VI%20%28Annexes%20158-221%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019; Supplemental Documents of the Philippines (19 November 2015), Annex 608, Department of Foreign Affairs—Republic of the Philippines. Statement on China’s Reclamation Activities and their Impact on the Region’s Marine Environment (13 April 2015), vol. I, 7–9 (“SDP”), https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Supplemental%20Documents%20-%20Volume%20I%20%28Annexes%20607-667%29.pdf, accessed 2 April 2019. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, signed at Washington, DC, on 3 March 1973, amended at Bonn, on 22 June 1979, amended at Gaborone, on 30 April 1983, https://www.cites.org/eng/disc/text.php, accessed 26 March 2019.

  7. 7.

    MP, Annex 186, Note Verbale from the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of the Philippines to the Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Manila No. 2000100 (14 January 2000), vol. VI, 259–61. https://files.pca-cpa.org/pcadocs/The%20Philippines%27%20Memorial%20-%20Volume%20VI%20%28Annexes%20158-221%29.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, signed at Ramsar, Iran, on 2 February 1971, as amended by the Protocol of 3 December 1982 and the Amendments of 28 May 1987, Preamble, https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/current_convention_text_e.pdf, accessed 24 March 2019.

  8. 8.

    MP, Annex 186, vol. VI, 259–61; SDP, Annex 608, vol. I, 7–9. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), signed at Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992, entered into force on 29 December 1993, https://www.cbd.int/doc/legal/cbd-en.pdf, accessed 26 March 2019.

  9. 9.

    South China Sea Arbitration, Award on Jurisdiction and Admissibility (29 October 2015), 69–70, paras. 176–178 (“Award on Jurisdiction”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1506, accessed 26 March 2019.

  10. 10.

    Ramsar Convention, Preamble.

  11. 11.

    Ibid., Article 1(1).

  12. 12.

    Michael Bowman et al., Lyster’s International Wildlife Law (2nd ed.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 405.

  13. 13.

    Ramsar Convention, Articles 2(1), 2(4) and 3(1).

  14. 14.

    Ibid., Article 5.

  15. 15.

    “China,” Ramsar Sites Information Service, http://www.ramsar.org/wetland/china, accessed 2 April 2019.

  16. 16.

    “Philippines,” Ramsar Sites Information Service, http://www.ramsar.org/wetland/philippines, accessed 2 April 2019.

  17. 17.

    The Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Coral Reefs: Critical Wetlands in Severe Danger, RAMSAR CoP12 Doc. 25 (1 April 2015), https://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/factsheet_5_coral_reefs_en.pdf, accessed 2 April 2019.

  18. 18.

    CITES, Preamble.

  19. 19.

    Ibid., Article II(1).

  20. 20.

    Ibid., Article III.

  21. 21.

    Ibid., Articles II(2) and IV.

  22. 22.

    Ibid., Article XVIII(1) and (6).

  23. 23.

    Bowman et al., 518.

  24. 24.

    Appendixes I, II and III valid from 2 January 2017, https://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php, accessed 2 April 2019.

  25. 25.

    CITES, Article XVIII(3).

  26. 26.

    MP, Annex 37, vol. III, 315–19; MP, Annex 43, vol. III, 351–55; MP, Annex 45, vol. III, 363–67; MP, Annex 48, vol. III, 379–94.

  27. 27.

    Republic of the Philippines, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau, The First Philippine National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Quezon City: Department of Environment and Natural Resources, 1998), https://www.cbd.int/reports/, accessed 25 April 2010.

  28. 28.

    South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Transcript, Day 2 (8 July 2015), 101, 110 (“Hearing on Jurisdiction”), https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1400, accessed 3 April 2019.

  29. 29.

    CBD, Article 2.

  30. 30.

    Lyle Glowka et al., A Guide to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Gland: IUCN-The World Conservation Union, 1994), 16, https://www.iucn.org/content/a-guide-convention-biological-diversity, accessed 3 April 2019.

  31. 31.

    Ibid., 21.

  32. 32.

    Ibid.

  33. 33.

    Ibid., 17.

  34. 34.

    CBD, Article 2.

  35. 35.

    Glowka et al., 21, 41.

  36. 36.

    CBD, Preamble.

  37. 37.

    Catherine Tinker, “A ‘New Breed’ of Treaty: The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity,” Pace Environmental Law Review 13 (Fall 1995): 197, http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1397&context=pelr, accessed 3 April 2019.

  38. 38.

    Robin Churchill, “The LOS Regime for Protection of the Marine Environment—Fit for the Twenty-First Century?” in Rosemary Rayfuse (ed.), Research Handbook for International Marine Environmental Law (Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: Edward Elgar, 2015), 20.

  39. 39.

    Convention, Article 192.

  40. 40.

    Law of the Sea. Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment. Report of the Secretary General, UN Doc. A/44/461 (18 September 1989), 5, para. 6, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/76086?ln=en, accessed 3 April 2019.

  41. 41.

    United Nations Office of Legal Affairs, Codification Division, United Nations Diplomatic Conferences. Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, 1973–1982, 2019, http://legal.un.org/diplomaticconferences/1973_los/, accessed 4 April 2019.

  42. 42.

    Myron H. Norquist et al. (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 Commentary, vol. IV, Third Committee: Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment, Marine Scientific Research, and Development and Transfer of Marine Technology (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1991), 64. States may be willing to accept the US proposal because in other informal meetings it had been agreed that the concept of “marine environment” included “marine life.” Detlef Czybulka, “Article 194. Measures to Prevent, Reduce and Control Pollution in the Marine Environment,” in Alexander Proelss (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea: A Commentary (München: Verlag C.H. Beck oHG, 2017), 1301.

  43. 43.

    This paragraph is summarized from Yoshifumi Tanaka, The International Law of the Sea (2nd ed.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 239–46.

  44. 44.

    Convention, Article 63.

  45. 45.

    Ibid., Article 64. These species are listed in Annex I of the Convention.

  46. 46.

    Ibid., Article 65. Marine mammals are not listed in the Convention; they include whales, small cetaceans, dolphins, porpoises, seals, dugong, and marine otters.

  47. 47.

    Ibid., Article 66.

  48. 48.

    Ibid., Article 67.

  49. 49.

    Glowka et al., 27.

  50. 50.

    Ibid., 28.

  51. 51.

    Ibid., 26.

  52. 52.

    Ibid., 27.

  53. 53.

    CBD, Article 5.

  54. 54.

    Ibid., Article 2.

  55. 55.

    Ibid., Article 8(d), (f) and (h). Many commentators argue (1) that the CBD contains no substantive obligation to protect biodiversity, e.g., Lakshman D. Guruswamy, “The Convention on Biological Diversity: Exposing the Flawed Foundations,” Environmental Conservation 26 (1999): 79–82, http://globalseminarhealth.wdfiles.com/local--files/pharmaceutical-harvesting/Guruswamy.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019, and Marie-Angèle Hermitte, “La Convention sur la diversité biologique [The Convention on Biological Diversity],” Annuaire Français de Droit International [French Yearbook of International Law]” 38 (1992): 844–70 (“AFDI”), http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/afdi_0066-3085_1992_num_38_1_3098.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019; or (2) that the Convention imposes very few obligations, e.g., Lee A. Kimball, “The Biodiversity Convention: How to Make It Work,” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 28 (1995): 763–75, http://69.90.183.227/doc/articles/2002-/A-00497.pdf, accessed 9 December 2016; or (3) that the obligations are merely procedural, e.g., Catherine Tinker, “Responsibility for Biological Diversity under International Law,” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 28 (1995): 777–821. The first and second views seem to be unfounded, while the third is only partially true.

  56. 56.

    Rüdiger Wolfrum and Nele Matz, “The Interplay of UNCLOS and CBD,” Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law 4 (2000): 459–60. Wolfrum was one of the judges in the South China Sea Arbitration.

  57. 57.

    CBD, Conference of the Parties (“COP”) 7, Decision VII/5, Marine and Coastal Biological Diversity, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VII/5 (13 April 2004), Annex I, I.A, 10; III, 14, https://www.cbd.int/decision/cop/default.shtml?id=7742, accessed 3 April 2019.

  58. 58.

    CBD, COP 10, Decision X/2, The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020 and the Aichi Biodiversity Targets, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/2 (29 October 2010), 9, https://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop/?m=cop-10, accessed 3 April 2019.

  59. 59.

    Ibid., 7.

  60. 60.

    Unless otherwise indicated, this paragraph is summarized from Tanaka, 234–38.

  61. 61.

    John P. Grant and J. Craig Barker, Parry & Grant Encyclopedic Dictionary of International Law (3rd ed.; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 284.

  62. 62.

    Ibid., 598.

  63. 63.

    Ibid., 24.

  64. 64.

    Carl-August Fleischer, “La pêche [Fisheries],” in René-Jean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes (eds.), Traité du Nouveau Droit de la mer [Treatise on the New Law of the Sea] (Paris: Éditions Économica, 1985), 876–77.

  65. 65.

    Convention, Article 76(1).

  66. 66.

    Ibid., Article 77(4) .

  67. 67.

    Ibid., Article 117.

  68. 68.

    This paragraph is summarized from Churchill, “The LOS Regime,” 3–9.

  69. 69.

    Convention, Article 61(2) and (3).

  70. 70.

    Ibid., Article 61(4).

  71. 71.

    Wolfrum and Matz, 450.

  72. 72.

    Malgosia Fitzmaurice, “International Protection of the Environment,” Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye [Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law], vol. 293 (2001-VI), 337–39.

  73. 73.

    Susana Borràs, “Comparative Analysis of Selected Compliance Procedures Under Multilateral Environmental Agreements,” in Sandrine Maljean-Dubois and Lavanya Rajamani (eds.), La mise en oeuvre du droit international de l’environnement [The Implementation of International Law of the Environment] (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2011), 328.

  74. 74.

    David M. Ong, “International Environmental Law Governing Threats to Biological Diversity,” in Malgosia Fitzmaurice, David M. Ong, and Panos Merkouris (eds.), Research Handbook on International Environmental Law (Cheltenham, Gloucestershire: Edward Elgar, 2010), 536.

  75. 75.

    CBD, COP 4, Decision IV/14, National Reports by Parties, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/4/27 (15 June 1998), 127–28, https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/cop/cop-04/official/cop-04-27-en.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019. The quality of the reports ranged from a 12-page type-written report to a 200-page report on glossy paper. Gudrun Henne and Saleem Fakir, “The Regime-Building of the Convention on Biological Diversity on the Road to Nairobi,” Max Planck Yearbook on United Nations Law 3 (1999): 358.

  76. 76.

    CBD, COP 7, Decision VII/25, National Reporting, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VII/25 (13 April 2004), https://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop/?m=cop-07, accessed 3 April 2019.

  77. 77.

    See, for example, CBD, COP 2, Decision II/17, Form and Intervals of National Reports by Parties, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/2/19 (30 November 1995), 72–74, https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/cop/cop-02/official/cop-02-19-en.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019; CBD, COP 5, Decision V/19, National Reporting, UNEP/CBD/COP/5/23 (22 June 2000), 151–52, https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/cop/cop-05/official/cop-05-23-en.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019; CBD, COP 8, Decision VIII/14, National Reporting and the Next Global Biodiversity Outlook, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/VIII/14 (15 June 2006), https://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop/?m=cop-08, accessed 3 April 2019; and CBD, COP 10, Decision X/10, National Reporting: Review of Experience and Proposals for the Fifth National Report, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/X/10 (29 October 2010), https://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop/?m=cop-10, accessed 3 April 2019. Some of the earlier criticisms of the reporting system no longer appear to be valid. See Ađelheiđur Jóhansdóttir et al., “The Current Framework for International Governance of Biodiversity: Is It Doing More Harm Than Good?” Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 19 (2010): 139–49; Philippe Le Prestre, “The Convention on Biological Diversity: Negotiating the Turn to Effective Implementation,” ISUMA: Canadian Journal of Policy Research 3 (2002): 92–98.

  78. 78.

    A database of national reports is maintained in https://www.cbd.int/reports/, accessed 3 April 2019.

  79. 79.

    People’s Republic of China, State Environmental Protection Administration of China, China’s Second National Report on Implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity (Beijing: China National Environmental Science Press, 2001), 55, https://www.cbd.int/reports, accessed 3 April 2019.

  80. 80.

    Ibid., China’s Third National Report on Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Beijing: State Environmental Protection Administration of China, 2005), 192, https://www.cbd.int/reports, accessed 3 April 2019.

  81. 81.

    Ibid., Ministry of Environmental Protection, China’s Fifth National Report on Implementation of the Convention on Biological Diversity (Beijing: Ministry of Environmental Protection, 2014), 98, https://www.cbd.int/reports, accessed 3 April 2019.

  82. 82.

    The non-compliance mechanism established within the framework of the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer is the model often cited in this respect. “Annex IV, Non-compliance Procedure,” Report of the Fourth Meeting of the Parties to the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Copenhagen, 23–25 November 1992, Doc. UNEP/OzL.Pro.4/15 (25 November 1992), 44–45, https://unep.ch/ozone/Meeting_Documents/mop/04mop/MOP_4.shtml, accessed 3 April 2019. Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, concluded at Montreal, 16 September 1987, entered into force 26 August 1989, https://ozone.unep.org/sites/default/files/Montreal-Protocol-English_0.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019.

  83. 83.

    Elisa Morgera and Elsa Tsioumani, “Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow: Looking Afresh at the Convention on Biological Diversity,” Yearbook of International Environmental Law 21 (2010): 9–10.

  84. 84.

    Jean-Pierre Le Danff, “La Convention sur la diversité biologique – tentative de bilan depuis le sommet de Rio de Janeiro [The Convention on Biological Diversity. A Preliminary Balance Sheet Since the Rio de Janeiro Summit],” Vertigo. La revue juridique en sciences de l’environnement [Vertigo. The Legal Journal on Environmental Sciences] 3 (2002), https://journals.openedition.org/vertigo/4168, accessed 3 April 2019.

  85. 85.

    CBD, Subsidiary Body on Implementation, Voluntary Peer-Review Mechanism for National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan. Note by the Executive Secretary, Doc. UNEP/CBD/SBI/1/10/ADD1 (8 March 2016), https://www.cbd.int/doc/?meeting=sbi-01, accessed 3 April 2019.

  86. 86.

    COP 13, Decision XIII/25, Modus Operandi of the Subsidiary Body on Implementation and Mechanisms to Support the Review of Implementation, Doc. UNEP/CBD/COP/DEC/XIII/25 (9 December 2016), 1, paras. 2, 3, https://www.cbd.int/decisions/cop/?m=cop-12, accessed 3 April 2019.

  87. 87.

    Ibid., Article 27(1) and (2). Good offices consist in various kinds of action tending to call negotiations between parties to a dispute into existence. Mediation consists in direct conduct of negotiations between the parties at issue on the basis of proposals made by the mediator. Grant and Barker, 247–48.

  88. 88.

    CBD, Article 27(3). Austria, Georgia, Latvia, and the Netherlands have accepted both arbitration and submission of a dispute to the ICJ as compulsory. Cuba has accepted arbitration as compulsory. If diplomatic methods fail to resolve a dispute, only disputes between any two of the first four States Parties to the CBD may be submitted to the ICJ. Only disputes between any two of the five may be submitted to arbitration. United Nations Treaty Collection, Convention on Biological Diversity (16 April 2017), https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XXVII-8&chapter=27&clang=_en, accessed 3 April 2019.

  89. 89.

    CBD, Article 27(4).

  90. 90.

    Adolfo Maresca, Il diritto dei trattati. La Convenzione codificatrice di Viena del 23 maggio 1969 [The Law of Treaties. The Codifying Convention of Vienna, 23 May 1969] (Milano: Dott. A. Giuffrè Editore, 1971), 752. Compulsory arbitration (i.e., at the request of either party to the dispute) had been proposed in an earlier draft of the CBD as one of two alternatives, but the option was ruled out in favor of compulsory conciliation in the CBD’s final draft. See United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee for a Convention on Biological Diversity, Fifth Revised Draft Convention on Biological Diversity. Explanatory Note, Doc. UNEP/Bio.Div/N7-INC.5/2 (20 February 1992), Article 30, 26–27, https://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/iccbd/bdn-07-inc-05/official/bdn-07-inc-05-02-en.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019.

  91. 91.

    Institut de Droit International [Institute of International Law], Session of Salzburg, International Conciliation, 1961, http://www.idi-iil.org/app/uploads/2017/06/1961_salz_02_en.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019. The English text is a translation; the French text is authoritative.

  92. 92.

    J. G. Merrills, International Dispute Settlement (4th ed.; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 59–60, 69–72.

  93. 93.

    On the Court of Conciliation and Arbitration within the OSCE, see Robert Badinter, “La Cour de conciliation et d’arbitrage au sein de l’O.S.C.E. [The OSCE Court of Conciliation and Arbitration],” International Law FORUM du droit international 1 (1999): 99–102; Lucius Caflisch and Laurence Cuny, “Der Vergleichs- und Schiedsgerichtshof der OSZE: Aktuelle Probleme [The OSCE Court of Conciliation and Arbitration: Current Problems],” OSZE-Jahrbuch [OSCE Yearbook] 3 (1997): 373–82, https://ifsh.de/core/publikationen/osze-jahrbuch/1997/, accessed 3 April 2019; Court of Conciliation and Arbitration, Court of Conciliation and Arbitration Within the OSCE: Periodic Report 2013–2016 to the States Parties to the Convention on Conciliation and Arbitration Within the OSCE, http://www.osce.org/cca, accessed 3 April 2019; Dieter S. Lutz, “Der OSZE-Gerichtshof [The OSCE Court of Conciliation and Arbitration],” OSZE-Jahrbuch [OSCE Yearbook] 1 (1995): 241–53, https://ifsh.de/core/publikationen/osze-jahrbuch/1995/, accessed 3 April 2019; Heinrich B. Reimann, “Le règlement pacifique des différends à l’OSCE [The Peaceful Settlement of Disputes at the OSCE],” in Marcelo G. Kohen (ed.), La promotion de la justice, des droits de l’homme et du règlement des conflits par le droit international. Liber Amicorum Lucius Caflisch [Promoting Justice, Human Rights and Conflict Resolution Through International Law. Liber Amicorum Lucius Caflisch] (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2007), 891–96; Christian Tomuschat, “Sleeping Beauty: The OSCE Court of Conciliation and Arbitration,” Security Community. The OSCE Magazine 2 (2014): 36–37, http://www.osce.org/cca, accessed 3 April 2019; and Christian Tomuschat et al. (eds.), Conciliation in International Law: The OSCE Court of Conciliation and Arbitration (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 2016).

  94. 94.

    For a recent summary, see Ulf Linderfalk, “The Jan Mayen Case (Iceland/Norway): An Example of Successful Conciliation,” paper presented at the Symposium “Conciliation in the Globalized World of Today,” organized by the Court of Conciliation and Arbitration within the O.S.C.E. (10–11 June 2015), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2783622, accessed 3 April 2019.

  95. 95.

    Jens Evensen, “La délimitation entre la Norvège et l’Islande du plateau continental dans le secteur de Jan Mayen [The Delimitation between Norway and Iceland of the Continental Shelf in the Jan Mayen Sector],” AFDI 27 (1981): 721, http://www.persee.fr/doc/afdi_0066-3085_1981_num_27_1_2469, accessed 3 April 2019.

  96. 96.

    Elliott L. Richardson, “Jan Mayen in Perspective,” American Journal of International Law 82 (1988): 445.

  97. 97.

    “Conciliation Commission on the Continental Shelf Area Between Iceland and Jan Mayen: Report and Recommendations to the Governments of Iceland and Norway. Decision of June 1981,” Reports of International Arbitral Awards, vol. 27 (New York: United Nations, 2008), 7–9, 22–25, http://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVII/1-34.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019.

  98. 98.

    Evensen, 723–24.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., 724.

  100. 100.

    Ibid. For conciliation between neighbors with friendly relations, see Suzanne Bastid, “La Commission de conciliation franco-suisse [The Franco-Swiss Conciliation Commission],” AFDI 2 (1956): 436–40, http://www.persee.fr/doc/afdi_0066-3085_1956_num_2_1_1256; Marcelle Breton-Jokl, “La Commission de conciliation italo-suisse [The Italo-Swiss Conciliation Commission],” AFDI 3 (1957): 210–21, http://www.persee.fr/doc/afdi_0066-3085_1957_num_3_1_1322; and Daniel Vignes, “La sentence de la Commission de conciliation franco-italienne dans l’affaire du différend sur les biens immeubles appartenant à l’ordre de Saint-Maurice et de Saint Lazare (Hospice du Petit Saint-Bernard) [The Award of the Franco-Italian Conciliation Commission in the Case relating to the Dispute concerning Immovable Property Belonging to the Order of Saint Maurice and Saint Lazarus (Little Saint Bernard Hospice)],” AFDI 11 (1965): 319–32, http://www.persee.fr/doc/afdi_0066-3085_1965_num_11_1_1822, accessed 3 April 2019.

  101. 101.

    Merrills, 80.

  102. 102.

    Hans Wehberg, “Die Vergleichskommissionen im modernen Völkerrecht [Conciliation Commissions in Modern International Law],” Zeitschrift für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht [Journal for Foreign Public Law and International Law] 19 (1958): 586, http://www.zaoerv.de/19_1958/19_1958_1_3_a_551_593.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019. An example would be the conciliation between France and Morocco during the Algerian war of independence from France. “L’affaire du F. OABV (Maroc c. France) [The Case of F. OABV (Morocco v. France)],” AFDI 4 (1958): 282–95, http://www.persee.fr/doc/afdi_0066-3085_1958_num_4_1_1382, accessed 3 April 2019.

  103. 103.

    Linderfalk, 21–22.

  104. 104.

    Merrills, 81. An example is the conciliation between France and Siam (Thailand) concerning the adjustment of the latter’s borders with French Indochina. “Rapport de la Commission de conciliation Franco-Siamoise, Washington, 27 Juin 1947 [Report of the Franco-Siamese Conciliation Commission, Washington, 27 June 1947],” Reports of International Arbitral Awards, vol. 28 (New York: United Nations, 2007), 433–50, http://legal.un.org/riaa/cases/vol_XXVIII/433-450.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019.

  105. 105.

    Aurélie Tardieu, “Les conferences des États parties [Conferences of States Parties],” AFDI 57 (2011): 116, http://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/afdi_0066-3085_2011_num_57_1_4178.pdf, accessed 3 April 2019.

  106. 106.

    United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Meeting of the States Parties, Fifteenth Meeting, New York, 16–24 June 2005, Report of the Fifteenth Meeting of States Parties, Doc. SPLOS/135 (25 July 2005), 16, para. 81, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N05/439/16/PDF/N0543916.pdf?OpenElement, accessed 3 April 2019.

  107. 107.

    Ibid., Twenty-First Meeting, New York, 13–17 June 2011, Report of the Twenty-First Meeting of States Parties, Doc. SPLOS/231 (29 June 2011), 18, para. 119, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N11/393/68/PDF/N1139368.pdf?OpenElement, accessed 3 April 2019.

  108. 108.

    Ibid., Twenty-Fifth Meeting, New York, 8–12 June 2015, Report of the Twenty-Fifth Meeting of States Parties, 16, para. 81, Doc. SPLOS/287 (13 July 2015), https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N15/217/42/PDF/N1521742.pdf?OpenElement, accessed 3 April 2019.

  109. 109.

    Ibid., Twenty-Sixth Meeting, New York, 20–24 June 2016, Report of the Twenty-Sixth Meeting of States Parties, Doc. SPLOS/30 (2 August 2016), 16, para. 92, https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N16/245/62/PDF/N1624562.pdf?OpenElement, accessed 3 April 2019.

  110. 110.

    Ibid., Report of the Fifteenth Meeting of States Parties, 16, para. 82.

  111. 111.

    Tardieu, 115.

  112. 112.

    Robin Churchill, “The Persisting Problem of Non-compliance with the Law of the Sea Convention: Disorder in the Oceans,” in David Freestone (ed.), The 1982 Law of the Sea Convention at 30: Successes, Challenges and New Agendas (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2013), 141–42.

  113. 113.

    For brief introductions see Claude-Albert Colliard, “Problèmes et solutions en matière de règlement des différends [Problems and Solutions in Dispute Settlement],” in Société Française pour le Droit International [French Society for International Law], Colloque de Rouen [Rouen Colloquium], Perspectives du droit de la mer à l’issue de la 3eConférence des Nations Unies [Perspectives on the Law of the Sea at the Conclusion of the Third United Nations Conference] (Paris: Éditions Pedone, 1984), 174–89; Myron H. Nordquist et al. (eds.), United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 Commentary, vol. V, Settlement of Disputes, General and Final Provisions and related Annexes and Resolutions (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1989), 1–146; Raymond Ranjeva, “Le règlement des différends [Dispute Settlement],” in René-Jean Dupuy and Daniel Vignes (eds.), Traité du Nouveau Droit de la mer [Treatise on the New Law of the Sea] (Paris: Éditions Economica, 1985), 1105–68; Louis B. Sohn, “Settlement of Disputes Relating to the Interpretation and Application of Treaties,” Recueil des Cours de l’Académie de Droit International de La Haye [Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law], vol. (1976-II), 280–92; and Ugo Villani, “Osservazioni sulla soluzione delle controversie nelle convenzioni di codificazione del diritto internazionale [Observations on Dispute Settlement in Conventions Codifying International Law],” in Le droit international à l’heure de sa codification. Études en l’honneur de Roberto Ago [International Law at the Time of Its Codification. Essays in Honour of Roberto Ago], vol. III, Les différends entre États et la responsabilité [Inter-State Disputes and Responsibility] (Milano: Dott. A. Giuffrè Editore, 1987), 508–21.

  114. 114.

    Convention, Article 281.

  115. 115.

    Ibid., Article 282.

  116. 116.

    Ibid., Article 284.

  117. 117.

    CBD, Article 27(3).

  118. 118.

    Convention, Article 287(1).

  119. 119.

    CBD, Article 27(4).

  120. 120.

    Convention, Article 287(3) and (5).

  121. 121.

    Ibid., Article 297(2)(b).

  122. 122.

    Ibid., Article 297(3).

  123. 123.

    Ibid., Article 298(1)(a). The parties to the dispute shall enter into negotiations on the basis of the report of the Conciliation Commission. If the negotiations fail, the consent of both parties to the dispute is required for submission of the dispute to a procedure entailing binding decisions.

  124. 124.

    South China Sea Arbitration, Hearing on Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Transcript, Day 3 (13 July 2015), 42, https://pcacases.com/web/sendAttach/1401, accessed 3 April 2019.

  125. 125.

    Maresca, 752.

  126. 126.

    Linderfalk, 18.

  127. 127.

    Villani, 498.

  128. 128.

    Thomas A. Mensah, “Using Judicial Bodies for the Implementation and Enforcement of International Environmental Law,” in Isabelle Buffard et al. (eds.), International Law Between Universalism and Fragmentation. Festschrift in Honour of Gerhard Hafner (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2008), 801–803. Mensah was the president of the Arbitral Tribunal in the South China Sea Arbitration.

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    Alfredo C. Robles Jr.

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Robles Jr., A. (2020). The International Frameworks for the Conservation of Biodiversity and of the Marine Environment. In: Endangered Species and Fragile Ecosystems in the South China Sea. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-9813-1_3

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