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From Protoplanetary Disks to Planet Formation pp 1–150Cite as

Physical Processes in Protoplanetary Disks

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Part of the book series: Saas-Fee Advanced Course ((SAASFEE,volume 45))

Abstract

This review, based on lectures given at the 45th Saas-Fee Advanced Course “From Protoplanetary Disks to Planet Formation”, introduces physical processes in protoplanetary disks relevant to accretion and the initial stages of planet formation. After a brief overview of the observational context, I introduce the elementary theory of disk structure and evolution, review the gas-phase physics of angular momentum transport through turbulence and disk winds, and discuss possible origins for the episodic accretion observed in Young Stellar Objects. Turning to solids, I review the evolution of single particles under aerodynamic forces, and describe the conditions necessary for the development of collective gas-particle instabilities. Observations show that disks can exhibit pronounced large-scale structure, and I discuss the types of structures that may form from gas and particle interactions at ice lines, vortices and zonal flows, prior to the formation of large planetary bodies. I conclude with disk dispersal.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Accretion from lower density gas within the star forming region could persist to later times [403].

  2. 2.

    To see this, substitute \(x \equiv h \nu /k_B T\) and approximate the limits as \(r_\mathrm{in} = 0\) and \(r_\mathrm{out} = \infty \).

  3. 3.

    Representing fluid motions as microturbulence is a standard approximation for stellar atmospheres, but whether it is generally valid for disk turbulence is not obvious. Simon et al. [380] showed that it works reasonably well in the case where turbulence is driven by the magnetohydrodynamic instabilities discussed in Sect. 1.5.4.4.

  4. 4.

    The minimum mass Solar Nebula (MMSN) [175, 429], an approximate lower bound for the amount of disk gas needed to form the planets in the Solar System, can be useful as a reference model despite its tenuous connection to actual conditions in the disk at the time of planet formation. The MMSN has a gas surface density profile \(\varSigma (r) = 1.7 \times 10^3 (r/\text {AU})^{-3/2} \ \mathrm{g \ cm^{-2}}\).

  5. 5.

    Note that the amount of power involved in any of these non-thermal ionization processes is rather small when compared to that liberated by accretion [192]. Any additional processes that could convert even a small fraction of the accretion energy into non-thermal particles would likely matter for the ionization state.

  6. 6.

    Umebayashi and Nakano noted that if cosmic rays have an approximately isotropic angular distribution at the disk surface, geometric effects lead to a faster than exponential attenuation deep in the disk [415].

  7. 7.

    The size of the disk (and even whether it is tidally truncated at all) will be different if the disk is substantially misaligned with respect to the orbital plane of the binary [261, 293].

  8. 8.

    We can also consider situations where the magnetic pressure in the disk is stronger than the gas pressure, though it must always be weaker than \(\rho v_\phi ^2\).

  9. 9.

    Ignoring magnetic fields in astrophysical accretion flows is generally a stupid thing to do, and indeed there is broad consensus that the magnetorotational instability (MRI) [45] is responsible for turbulence and angular momentum transport in most accretion disks. In protoplanetary disks, however, the low ionization fraction means that the dominance of MHD instabilities is much less obvious, and purely hydrodynamic effects could in principle be important.

  10. 10.

    As we shall see, a general rule is that all disk instabilities have long histories and pre-histories.

  11. 11.

    The mathematics of the MRI was worked out by Velikhov [422] and Chandrasekhar [85] around 1960. Thirty years passed before Balbus and Hawley [44] recognized the importance of the instability for accretion flows.

  12. 12.

    An analysis that retains the x-dependence can be found in the original Balbus and Hawley paper [44], and follows an essentially identical approach. Studying the stability of non-axisymmetric perturbations (in y), however, requires a different and more involved analysis [104, 311, 329, 401].

  13. 13.

    Several assumptions are hardwired into these numbers. For the resistivity, it is assumed that currents are carried by the electrons, and that the conductivity is limited by electron-neutral collisions. For the drag coefficient we assume that the neutral gas is predominantly molecular hydrogen, and that the ions are moderately massive \(m_i \simeq 30{-}40 m_\mathrm{H}\). It would be prudent to consult Blaes and Balbus [68], and references therein, should one encounter situations where these assumptions might fail.

  14. 14.

    The numerical implementation of the Hall effect in simulation codes remains challenging, and the presence of large-scale fields in the saturated state suggests that local simulations may not be adequate to describe the outcome. Observationally important issues such as the level of fluid turbulence that accompanies the predominantly large-scale transport by Maxwell stresses remain to be fully understood.

  15. 15.

    It is not obvious that the inner disk is resupplied by gas, or, to put it more formally, that the disk attains a steady-state. Out to \({\sim } 10 \ \mathrm{AU}\) the viscous time scale is short enough that the disk will plausibly adjust to a steady state (provided only that a steady state is possible, see Sect. 1.6), but no such argument works out to 100 AU. Ultimately the question of whether gas at 100 AU ever reaches the star will need to be settled by observations as well as by theory.

  16. 16.

    This may seem to require fine tuning, but in fact the ordering of time scales in a geometrically thin disk always allows for such a choice [338].

  17. 17.

    Cosmic rays in the original model, though this is an unimportant distinction.

  18. 18.

    In compact object accretion, this is described as the “propeller” regime of accretion [189].

  19. 19.

    Quoting from his paper, “should it be possible for a toroid of higher density to occur in the Solar nebula, the growing planetesimals would be drawn toward it from the inside as well as from the outside ...”.

  20. 20.

    For a derivation of the steady Kida solution, see e.g. the appendix of Chavanis [88].

  21. 21.

    In more detail, however, the grain population within the disk will affect the absorption of high energy photons and hence the local mass loss rate [160].

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Acknowledgements

My work on protoplanetary disk physics and planet formation has been supported by the National Science Foundation, by NASA under the Origins of Solar Systems, Exoplanet Research and Astrophysics Theory programs, and by the Space Telescope Science Institute. I acknowledge the hospitality of the IIB at the University of Liverpool, where much of this chapter was written, and thank Kaitlin Kratter for an informal review of the manuscript.

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  1. JILA, University of Colorado & NIST, Boulder, CO, 80309-0440, USA

    Philip J. Armitage

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  1. Philip J. Armitage
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Correspondence to Philip J. Armitage .

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  1. Department of Astronomy, University of Geneva, Geneve, Switzerland

    Marc Audard

  2. Department of Astronomy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

    Michael R. Meyer

  3. Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland

    Yann Alibert

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Armitage, P.J. (2019). Physical Processes in Protoplanetary Disks. In: Audard, M., Meyer, M., Alibert, Y. (eds) From Protoplanetary Disks to Planet Formation. Saas-Fee Advanced Course, vol 45. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-58687-7_1

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  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-58687-7_1

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  • Online ISBN: 978-3-662-58687-7

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