Abstract
Villager Li Wenshan remembered that there were several temples in Li Village before the Equal Distribution of Land Reform in 1947, but they were destroyed by villagers later.
In its most elementary developments law is intimately bound up with magic and religion; legal sanctions are closely related to ritual sanctions.
Radcliffe-Brown (1952: 219)
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- 1.
Story of Zhangye was collected by Liu Qiyin, edited by Li Shengtian, Li Yonghui and Liu Qiyin (Liu 1993: 127–129).
- 2.
Li Qinggang was 83 years old the year I interviewed him, who passed away in 2001. According to his wife, he seldom worked in fields when he was young and had great interests in religious activities. In his spare time, he would diagnose diseases for children without making prescription or offering medicine. His medical treatment was very easy to understand, and his operation was very important. Locals thought there were two kinds of diseases, one is “real disease”, and another is “virtual disease”. “Real diseases” were those you can find reason for its occurrence, like toothache, stomachache and so on. On the contrary, “virtual diseases” were those controlled by gods. Medicine and acupuncture could cure “real diseases” and Li liked the acupoint method. He would treat people at his home. In the first and fifteenth day every month, the time to offer incenses, he would go to the temple and cure diseases there. As to the “virtual diseases”, the only way he thought to do was something like witchcraft. For example, if a child got fever for no reason, he would see it as “encountering” gods or ghosts. Only witchcraft could drive the diseases away. Therefore, when some anxious parents came for medical advice for a child in fever, he would firstly determine whether it was a “real” or “virtual” disease. If it was a real disease, he would massage some acupoints with certain rules, then asked the parents to continue the massage when they went back home. If it was a virtual disease, he would write something on yellow paper to the parents and told them to do some mysterious motions at midnight. For example, he might tell them: “Coming out of home with this written paper at midnight, taking 50 steps from the door and turn right, then taking 10 more steps and burning the yellow paper. After that, running back home right away, so the child’s disease will be cured.” It’s said that this method was effective. On March 17th of 1999, I knew from the Dragon Brand Temple Fair of Fanzhuang Village that incense-viewers sometimes would cure illness for people. They also classified diseases into “real” and “virtual”. If the illness belonged to the former, they would suggest patients to see doctors in hospital, otherwise they would cure them by burning yellow paper or writing signs.
- 3.
Folklore of “Snip Tail Lao Zhang” and “Snip Tail Lao Li” are the same story, which enjoyed popularity in northeast, north and south China. You can refer to Legend of Dragon edited by Wang (1988) about this.
- 4.
From the record of Zhaozhou Annals , the great drought didn’t happen in 1903 and 1899 was a year of drought without rain and snow (Chorography Compilation Committee of Zhao County in Hebei Province 1993: 83). 1899 was neither a year of heavy flooding as the villagers believed. Therefore, the initial invitations for Zhangye might originate from rain-worship ritual and it was true that Zhangye was firstly invited as God of Rain .
- 5.
- 6.
Character “jiao” in “jiaopeng” shared the same meaning with that in “jiaoji zhongzhi” (a sacrificial ritual). But there exist various understandings on this sacrificial ritual. Scholar Liu Zhiwan from Taiwan believes that its meaning can be understood in four ways. The first is sacrificing, which occurred before the appearance of Taoism in Han Dynasty. The second is to worship gods in outdoors at night, which appeared in the late Han Dynasty. The third meaning is associated with the prevalence of Taoism in Tang, Song and Ming dynasties, which named the altar-setting and praying activities by clergies or Taoists as “Jiao”. The fourth meaning is that of present, namely, the large-scale celebration held to thank gods. Thus, it is an extended meaning from Liu Zhiwan’s term “seeing village gods as Jiao” (Liu Zhiwan 1974: 7).
- 7.
The two scriptures were as follows:
Verse
Verse All Buddhist Scripture The first joss stick used to invite the triple world, Buddhist and ancestor, Bodhisattva and arhat to come here. The second joss stick used to invite Shizun, Hierarch Youming, Dharma Protectors and their right-hand gods. The third joss stick used to invite Wangmu, Jiutian fairies, God of Longevity , Eight Immortals . The fourth joss stick used to invite Dizang, Hierarch Yuancong, five ancestors, four gods of location, and the ten kings of hell. The fifth joss stick used to invite Xifang, Santian Laozu, Dharma progenitor, Seymour progenitor. The sixth joss stick used to invite Sumu, Sumu Tinadi, Putian, Anxingdou, Haohua Yunzhi. The eighth joss stick used to invite Xifang, Santian Laomu, Banzhen Laomu, Yanguangmu, Songzi Laomu. The ninth joss stick used to invite Xiapanmu, Suimu, Genmu, Leimu, Shanmu, four dragon gods from each sea. The tenth joss stick used to invite Pangong, Santian Shengzu, Medicine Kings and saints, to give medicine and save people. After inviting, all gods please sit in its place, and receive the joss sticks consecrated by us.
Verse
Verse Ten Joss Sticks The first stick is consecrated to the above, as Yuhuang sitting there. The second stick is consecrated to the below, as our masters are there. The third stick is consecrated to the divine mountain, as Protectorate is there. The fourth stick is consecrated to the divine land, for they would perform magic power. The fifth stick is consecrated to the Oriental Sea, rivers and seas. The sixth stick is consecrated to the wind that driving boats, may all water safe. The seventh stick is consecrated to the Kongzhan, wish men and women behave according to morals and ethics. The eighth stick is consecrated to the Eight Diagrams, wish the universe go well. The ninth stick is consecrated to the ancestors, wish them walk on the western road to the heaven. The tenth stick is consecrated to the world, wish sunshine arrive at each corner.
- 8.
Lushen Scripture is as follows:
Verse
Verse Lushen Scripture God of Road comes from all directions, dress in red and sit to give fortune; Sat in sedan chair carried by people, he quickly arrives at the cross-road; Left “Lushen Scripture”, he stands at the road; Good people guide the way, God of Road will help them back home; Bad people walk on road, God of Road would ignore their business; (God of Road ’s words) All people stand above me throughout the year, while nobody shows his gratitude to me; Only receiving good people’s thanks, and placing Dagong on the road; (People’s action) Woodblock knocks once, and golden bell rings three times to consecrate the god; Which god people interrupted, it’s the Bigger Dipper in Heaven; The Bigger Dipper looking downwards, finding good people walking in the front; Then the god asked him, what he is asking for, benefits or longevity, offsprings or provision for the future; “Neither money nor life, I beg for an increase in my lifespan,” answered the man, To increase your lifespan to ninety-nine, please read this scripture throughout the year.
- 9.
The scripture read by Li villagers is as follows:
Verse
Verse The Invitation for God Inviting god to come, happily sitting above the stove, Wearing divine dress and flowers, and high buildings are rising, No matter the pilgrim is old or young, male or female, God would help all those who seek help, Magic methods that could save the needy and distressed hidden in the stove, Principle followed by gods is to grant whatever is requested; After installing the stove, god starts to see patients, Hidden in the stove is a messenger named Ma Tong, Who would mount clouds and ride mist to deliver people’s worship, Incense shows whether the disease is real or virtual, Incense indicates whether it’s lucky or unlucky, Both the poor and the rich are treated the same by God, Neither would he despise the poor nor carry favor with the rich, God would drink neither the consecrated tea nor sacrificed water, The rich sacrifice after being cured, No matter board or red cloth is inscribed, all would satisfy the God.
- 10.
The scripture of Consecration of Buddha reads as follows:
Verse
Verse Consecration of Buddha Above is the Renda, bright light and candles making it like the heaven, Burning incense and flaming candles to welcome the God sit in the middle, Sewing with seven jewelleries and eight treasures, please let me to bright your face, The light penetrates out of Sanjie, where presents a golden god, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the head, and a golden crown with dragon carvings is put at the god’s head, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the eyes, which become bright and sparkling, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the ears, so they could hear sounds from all directions, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the nose, so air goes smoothly in and out, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the mouth, so it would speak true words, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the heart, so it would be clear, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the shoulder, which will be covered with dragon cloth and embroidered robe, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the hands, giving all human the right direction, The golden god uses steel needle to consecrate the feet, from then on, the god would walk all sides for the sake of living beings, After I finished sewing, god will come to the new temple, Seeing the place that I prepared for him, the big god sits in the middle, Burning five incenses and placing them in censer, god returns, and everything goes well.
- 11.
Scriptures of Mulberry-picking, Unknown and Falling-fan are listed below,
Verse
Verse Mulberry-picking Picking mulberry leaves in January, the new-married wives visit parents-in-law, though she dresses in red and new clothes, she should kowtow on the floor to show her love and devotion; Picking mulberry leaves in February, swallows flew back from the south to set nest, wild geese also nest here, those coming are much more than those leaving; Picking mulberry leaves in March, the land becomes a carpet of golden flowers, the older sister picks flowers to worship Buddha, while the younger do it for Buddhists; Picking mulberry leaves in April, almost every household breed silkworms, the older sister breeds them to weave cloth, while the younger to weave silks; Picking mulberry leaves in May, boats carrying materials drive in rivers, with man sitting at the bow and woman in the stern, both are enjoying a happy time; Picking mulberry leaves in June, it’s so hot that almost everyone holds a fan in his hands, demanded by parents-in-law, wives still need to cook food in kitchen; Picking mulberry leaves in July, the rain is so heavy that the road in front of the house turns into a river, uncautiously stepping into the mud, the new embroidery shoes are smeared; Picking mulberry leaves in August, almost every household carries sickle to do fieldwork, the sharp sickle helps to work well, while the blunt one slows my working speed; Picking mulberry leaves in September, almost every household makes wine, and the good wine would be used to worship Buddha, and consecrate the first three cups to Buddhists; Picking mulberry leaves in October, frost beats the leaves, making them falling off to the flat land, it should be waited until the next spring to have new leaves.
Verse
Verse Unknown In the first day of January, several elders, including Zhu Geliang, Saint Confucius in Shandong come here; In the Dragon Heads-raising Day of February, Lv Dongbin gets drunk in Yueyang Tower, Han Xiangzi goes downhill with basket, delivering all living creatures from torment; In the third day of March, the Queen Mother of the West celebrates her birthday, and fairies in Jiutian come to offer felicitations, followed by the two gods He-Hui, In April when the wheat turns yellow, twenty-four filial Exemplars should be followed, and a man whose surname is Ding carves wood for his mother to show his filial piety ; In Dragon Boat Festival in May, White Snake and Green Snake reveal their true face, which frightens Xu Xian to worship in temple; In the hottest day in June, Liu Quan replaces the Emperor Li Shimin of Tang Dynasty to send pumpkins to the hell, as Liu loses his way, his dead wife revives in new guise of emperor’s sister Li Cuilian; In the seventh day of July, it’s the time that the Herd-boy and Weaving-girl could meet once a year, the Herd-boy goes to the the eastern river band of Milky Way, while the Weaving-girl waits in the western band; In Mid-Autumn Festival of August, Li Sanniang has lost her son for thirteen years, and Wang Sanjie has lived in the cold cave for eighteen years, they come to Wujia slope to pick wild greens; In September when chrysanthemums are in bloom, Meng Zheng is expelling ghosts in house, and Jiang Taigong is busy in selling food, while Zhu Maichen is cutting firewood; In October, people are happily waiting for the Spring, Cheng Yaojin is making and selling bamboo rakes, Chai Wenjin carts to sell garlic, and a person whose surname is Liu is selling straw sandals; In November when it snows, Wang Xiang lies on the icy lake to catch fish for his sick step-mother, fortunately a pair of carps bounce out of lake, which are caught by him; December is the end of the whole year, when it’s time to worship all ancestors, Li Yuan (the founder of Tang Dynasty) rebels to build a new empire in Taiyuan, later Qin Qiong saves Li Yuan from danger in Lintong Mountain, while Wu Han tearfully kills his beloved wife at the expense of morals in Tongguan; December is the end of the whole year, I earnestly hope gods would bless me, bless the village safe and peaceful, and a harvest in orchard and land, then I will sacrifice more offerings to gods.
Verse
Verse Falling-fan One golden fan is seven-inch long, taking shelter from rain and strong sunshine, so I hold it in my hands, going to main room in temple to worship Jade Emperor; Two golden fans having two golden sides, with Avalokitesvara and lads painting on them, so I hold the fans in my right hand, taking colorful handkerchief in left hand; Three golden fans take shape of flower, with the scene Liu Quan sending pumpkin painted on it, he sends food to the hell, moving the god to let his wife and him revive; Four golden fans are made exquisitely, with butterflies and bees on it, bees are flying in garden, while butterflies are dancing in broad space; Five golden fans are made long, Erlangshen carries mountains to cover nine suns, until it remains the only one, the Queen Mother of the West comes to pick mulberry leaves; Six golden fans are made firmly, with the two sworn brothers Jiao Zan and Meng Liang painting on it, both returned to the Hous of Yang, starting to work for Yang Liulang; Seven golden fans are made peculiarly, with the Herd-boy and Weaving-girl on it, they have to wait for the July 7th to get united; peculiarly Eight golden fans need eight sticks, handy men compete to make their man-made fans convenient to use, though fans are not valuable things, they can drive away the heat in summer; Nine golden fans are very tall, with a god standing at the divine bridge, I dare to ask where Guangong is going to, he responds to play a big knife on the bridge; Ten golden fans are united as a round, with blue sky, sun and moon on it, not knowing where they are going to, the moon at sky just becomes more and more crescent.
- 12.
Door-opening Scripture reads as follows:
Verse
Verse Door-opening Scripture Iron tree just has one blossom, and the god gives me a bronze lock; Going to the west to get the key, I meet dangers and difficulties at the beginning; Decorated with golden girders, candles and tablets, I ask the Buddhist the reason why he doesn’t bring the key to me; He replies that this jade key is a unique treasure, which he keeps with him throughout the day; Heaven and earth come clear into my eyes, and I see the two doors of the temple; Opening the door, I find the temple is vast and clean, and the god is sitting in the middle; The god prosper both male and female, blessing them safety and happiness with his natural benevolence; I open the treasury vault which is filled with divine flowers, and take Five Words Classics out; Those who read this scripture would avoid being sent to the hell; As I have come here, I earnestly and respectfully clean the old temple with my hands; The dust cleared by me turns into the cloud in the sky; After three sounds of the inverted bell, the god enters the Buddhist temple, with lighted candles placed at the altar; Joss sticks in censer and candles on altar, the flowers in vase are in blossom all the year round; Offerings are served in altar every day, and three bowls of green tea are offered to Maitreya; After inviting all of the gods, I go back to the temple to read scriptures.
- 13.
The survey conducted by Liu Tieliang and Zhao Bingxiang in Hebei Jingjing County named the relation of different villages’ collaboration as “inter-village organization ” (Liu and Zhao 1997), which also includes the collaboration ritual held among those organizations in Li Village fairs.
- 14.
This statistic was kept in the earlier records of Li Village Temple. It recorded the exact amount of money donated by other temple organizations in 1997. The distance among villages hadn’t been geographically measured, but was recorded according to the villagers’ estimation. As to this issue, no matter which villager you ask, they would give you a similar answer about the distance. These figures I listed here are based on my interviews with the villagers.
- 15.
Dutch linguist Johan Huizinga once did a refined research on people’s game features and he pointed out that one of the devices on the shield of Achilles as described in the book of the Iliad, represented a legal proceeding with judges sitting within the sacred circle, and at the centre of this there were “two talents of gold” for the person who pronounced the most righteous judgement. It seemed that the two parties were fighting for the two coins, but, actually, they seemed to be rather a stake or a prize than an object of litigation. Johan Huizinga explained that “the poet had a vase-painting in mind which showed two litigants sitting on either side of an actual pair of scales, the veritable ‘scales of justice’ where judgement was done by weighing according to the primitive custom—in other words by oracle of lot” (Huizinga 1998: 101).
- 16.
“Good deed” had been broadly interpreted by villagers. For example, when I studied the “Spring Dragon Festival” at Fanzhuang Village on March 17th of 1999, I saw banners like “incense-burning and kowtowing can protect you from disasters, consecrating gods is to respect Heaven and Earth ” in the place to consecrate Dragon Punch. There were also banners like “learning from Lei Feng, and thinking of and for others instead of yourself” proposed by the government. These were all accepted by locals as “good deeds”.
- 17.
About the relationship between the efficacy of Chinese folk temple and its decline, fieldwork carried by Yu Guanghong in Taiwan was the most valuable one. According to his research, temple was the key symbol of a community. Apart from the influence of economy, politics and other factors, its rise and fall must be understood by a “body of mythological”. A “body of mythological” could be translated into the folk words as “effective”, “epiphanic” or “efficacious”. It was also verified in Yu Guanghong’s study about changes in temple system in Magong City, Taiwan. Yu divided the magic tales into two kinds, one was “efficacious temple famous by words of mouth”, and another was “widely spread due to special miracles”. These two were not mutually exclusive and could exist in the same temple (Yu 1988: 137).
- 18.
Whether Chinese folk religion can be seen as a real religion is a controversial issue in the academic field (Qin and Kong 1990; Shahar and Weller 1996; Wang 1997a). In order to support or to against the argument, fieldworks are indispensable. However, the study of folk religion is much more difficult than that of national orthodox religions (Li 1948). There are no unitive scriptures or records showing their origins and no unitive religious ceremony. Although they imitate national orthodox religions to some extent and have ceremony activities with agreeable name of orthodox religions (like Buddhism and Taoism ), their prominent features lie in their reformation of orthodox religions. Various forms are invented and used in the process. As Ou Danian argued, a clear understanding of Chinese folk religion required a research that could be conducted as precisely as an archaeologist (Ou 1993). In this sense, the point that folk religions belong to witchcrafts, which believed Weber (1995), does not work here. For understanding the issue, I want to describe one village temple celebration, without further discussion about theoretical issues of folk religions.
- 19.
Wolf named it as “new feudalism ” (Wolf 1996).
- 20.
Zhangye Temple in Li Village treasured scriptures that the locals chanter. Among them there is one named The Eight Immortals Crossing the Sea.
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Zhao, X. (2019). Ritual and Order. In: Power and Justice. China Academic Library. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-53834-0_6
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