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The Right to Be Punished pp 15–56Cite as

General Purposes of Punishment

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Abstract

In determining the type and measure of punishment to be imposed on the offender, the court is guided by the general purposes of punishment. The court is expected to assess and evaluate each case in this context, based on two types of considerations: data about the offense (in rem) and the about the offender (in personam). These considerations are discussed in Chap. 3.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    The impersonal characteristics of the offense (in rem) are discussed below at paragraph 3.1 and the offender’s personal characteristics (in personam) are discussed below at paragraph 3.2.

  2. 2.

    Bronislaw Malinowski, Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1959, 1982).

  3. 3.

    René Girard, Violence and the Sacred (1979).

  4. 4.

    Donna T. Andrew, The Code of Honour and Its Critics: The Opposition to Duelling in England 1700–1850, 5 Social Hist. 409 (1980); Evi Girling, Ian Loader and Richard Sparks, A Telling Tale: A Case of Vigilantism and Its Aftermath in an English Town, 49 British J. of Sociology 474 (1998).

  5. 5.

    Exodus 21:23–25.

  6. 6.

    Russ VerSteeg, Early Mesopotamian Law 127–128 (2000); Colin Wilson, A Criminal History of Mankind 105 (2nd ed., 2005).

  7. 7.

    H.W.F. Saggs, The Greatness That Was Babylon 200 (1962); Raymond Westbrook and Claus Wilcke, The Liability of an Innocent Purchaser of Stolen Goods in Early Mesopotamian Law, 25 Archiv für Orientforschung 111, 114 (1974–1977).

  8. 8.

    Reuven Yaron, The Laws of Eshnunna 262–264 (2nd ed., 1988).

  9. 9.

    Samuel Noah Kramer, The Sumerians 84 (1963).

  10. 10.

    Jacob Joel Finkelstein, Ammi-saduqa’s Edict and the Babylonian “Law Codes”, 15 JCS 91, 98 (1961); Arthur Sigismund Diamond, An Eye for an Eye, 19 Iraq 151–155 (1957).

  11. 11.

    Reuven Yaron, Quelques Remarques sur les Nouveaux Fragments des Lois d’Ur-Nammu, 63 RHD 131, 136 (1985).

  12. 12.

    Cherif M. Bassiouni, A Survey of the Major Criminal Justice Systems of the World, 527 Handbook of Criminology (Daniel Glaser ed., 1974).

  13. 13.

    G. R. Driver and John C. Miles, The Babylonian Laws, Vol. I: Legal Commentary 499 (1952).

  14. 14.

    Law 195 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a son strikes his father, his hands shall be hewn off”.

  15. 15.

    Law 218 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a physician makes a large incision with the operating knife, and kills him, or opens a tumor with the operating knife, and cuts out the eye, his hands shall be cut off”.

  16. 16.

    Law 226 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a barber, without the knowledge of his master, cuts the sign of a slave on a slave not to be sold, the hands of this barber shall be cut off”.

  17. 17.

    Law 253 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If any one agrees with another to tend his field, give him seed, entrust a yoke of oxen to him, and binds him to cultivate the field, if he steals the corn or plants, and takes them for himself, his hands shall be hewn off”.

  18. 18.

    Law 205 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If the slave of a freed man strikes the body of a freed man, his ear shall be cut off”.

  19. 19.

    Law 282 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a slave says to his master: ‘You are not my master’, if they convict him his master shall cut off his ear”.

  20. 20.

    Law 192 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a son of a paramour or a prostitute says to his adoptive father or mother: ‘You are not my father, or my mother’, his tongue shall be cut off”.

  21. 21.

    Law 194 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If a man gives his child to a nurse and the child die in her hands, but the nurse unbeknown to the father and mother nurse another child, then they shall convict her of having nursed another child without the knowledge of the father and mother and her breasts shall be cut off”.

  22. 22.

    Law 193 of the Code of Hammurabi (L. W. King trans.) provided: “If the son of a paramour or a prostitute desires his father’s house, and deserts his adoptive father and adoptive mother, and goes to his father’s house, then shall his eye be put out”.

  23. 23.

    George Ives, History of Penal Methods: Criminals, Witches, Lunatics 252 (1914, 2003); Howard Jones, Crime and the Penal System 138 (1965).

  24. 24.

    Gertrude Ezorsky, Philosophical Perspectives on Punishment 102–134 (1972).

  25. 25.

    Below at paragraphs 2.2 and 2.3.

  26. 26.

    Sheldon Glueck, Principles of a Rational Penal Code, 41 Harv. L. Rev. 453 (1928).

  27. 27.

    Jackson Toby, Is Punishment Necessary? 55 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 332 (1964); C. G. Schoenfeld, In Defence of Retribution in the Law, 35 Psychoanalytic Q. 108 (1966).

  28. 28.

    Below at paragraph 2.3.

  29. 29.

    Francis A. Allen, The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal: Penal Policy and Social Purpose 66 (1981).

  30. 30.

    Nicholas Kittrie, The Right to be Different: Deviance and Enforced Therapy (1971); David J. Rothman, For the Good of All: The Progressive Tradition in Prison Reform, 271 History and Crime: Implications of Criminal Justice and Policy (James A. Inciardi and Charles E. Faupel eds., 1980); Walter C. Bailey, Correctional Outcome: An Evaluation of 100 Reports, 57 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 153 (1966); Roberts Martinson, What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform, 35 Public Interest 22 (1974).

  31. 31.

    Barbara Hudson, Understanding Justice: An Introduction to Ideas, Perspectives and Controversies in Modern Penal Theory 39 (1996, 2003); Jessica Mitford, Kind and Usual Punishment: The Prison Business (1974).

  32. 32.

    Russell L. Christopher, Deterring Retributivism: The Injustice of “Just” Punishment, 96 Nw. U. L. Rev. 843 (2002); Douglas Husak, Holistic Retribution, 88 Cal. L. Rev. 991 (2000); Douglas Husak, Retribution in Criminal Theory, 37 San Diego L. Rev. 959 (2000); Dan Markel, Are Shaming Punishments Beautifully Retributive? Retributivism and the Implications for the Alternative Sanctions Debate, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 2157 (2001).

  33. 33.

    Andrew von Hirsch, Doing Justice: The Choice of Punishment 74–75 (1976); Andrew von Hirsch, Proportionate Sentences: A Desert Perspective, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 115 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  34. 34.

    Paul H. Robinson and John M. Darley, The Utility of Desert, 91 Nw. U. L. Rev. 453 (1997); Samuel Scheffler, Justice and Desert in Liberal Theory, 88 Cal. L. Rev. 965 (2000); Edward M. Wise, The Concept of Desert, 33 Wayne L. Rev. 1343 (1987).

  35. 35.

    Below at paragraph 4.1.

  36. 36.

    Nigel Walker, Why Punish? (1991).

  37. 37.

    Paul Butler, Retribution, for Liberals, 46 U.C.L.A. L. Rev. 1873 (1999); Michele Cotton, Back With a Vengeance: The Resilience of Retribution as an Articulated Purpose of Criminal Punishment, 37 Am. Crim. L. Rev. 1313 (2000); Jean Hampton, Correcting Harms versus Righting Wrongs: The Goal of Retribution, 39 U.C.L.A. L. Rev. 1659 (1992).

  38. 38.

    See, e.g., article 242 of the German Penal Code.

  39. 39.

    Ledger Wood, Responsibility and Punishment, 28 Am. Inst. Crim. L. & Criminology 630 (1938).

  40. 40.

    Immanuel Kant, Metaphysical Elements of Justice: Part I – The Metaphysics of Morals 102 (trans. John Ladd, 1965).

  41. 41.

    Gabriel Hallevy, Victim’s Complicity in Criminal Law, 2 Int’l J. Punishment & Sentencing 74 (2006).

  42. 42.

    Andrew von Hirsch, Doing Justice: The Choice of Punishment 50 (1976). Compare United States v. Bergman, 416 F.Supp. 496 (S.D.N.Y.1976); Richard S. Frase, Limiting Retributivism, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 135 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  43. 43.

    Deterrence is discussed below at paragraph 2.2, rehabilitation is discussed below at paragraph 2.3 and incapacitation is discussed below at paragraph 2.4.

  44. 44.

    Cesare Beccaria, Traité des Délits et des Peines (1764).

  45. 45.

    Leon Radzinowicz, A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 vol. 1: The Movement for Reform (1948).

  46. 46.

    Jeremy Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation ch. 13 (1789, 1996); Jeremy Bentham, Punishment and Deterrence, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 53–56 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  47. 47.

    Paul Johann Anselm Feuerbach, Lehrbuch des Gemeinen in Deutschland Gültigen Peinlichen Rechts 117 (1812, 2007).

  48. 48.

    Leon Radzinowicz and Roger Hood, A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 vol. 5: The Emergence of Penal Policy (1986).

  49. 49.

    Below at paragraph 2.3.

  50. 50.

    Johannes Andenaes, The General Preventive Effects of Punishment, 114 U. Pa. L. Rev. 949 (1966); Johannes Andenaes, The Morality of Deterrence, 37 U. Chi. L. Rev. 649 (1970).

  51. 51.

    Francis A. Allen, The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal: Penal Policy and Social Purpose 66 (1981).

  52. 52.

    Nicholas Kittrie, The Right to be Different: Deviance and Enforced Therapy (1971); David J. Rothman, For the Good of All: The Progressive Tradition in Prison Reform, 271 History and Crime: Implications of Criminal Justice and Policy (James A. Inciardi and Charles E. Faupel eds., 1980); Walter C. Bailey, Correctional Outcome: An Evaluation of 100 Reports, 57 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 153 (1966); Roberts Martinson, What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform, 35 Public Interest 22 (1974).

  53. 53.

    Andrew von Hirsch, Anthony E. Bottoms and Elizabeth Burney, Criminal Deterrence and Sentence Severity (1999); Daniel Nagin, General Deterrence: A Review of the Empirical Evidence, Deterrence and Incapacitation: Estimating the Effects of Criminal Sanctions on Crime Rates 95 (Alfred Blumstein, Jacqueline Cohen and Daniel Nagin eds., 1978).

  54. 54.

    For mandatory sentencing and mandatory minimum sentencing see below at paragraph 4.3.2.

  55. 55.

    James Q. Wilson, Thinking about Crime (2nd ed., 1985); Nigel Walker, Sentencing: Theory, Law and Practice ch.7 (2nd ed., 1996).

  56. 56.

    Above at paragraphs 2.1.1 and 2.1.2.

  57. 57.

    Below at paragraph 2.2.3.

  58. 58.

    Where W is the value f the benefit, R is the risk of being caught, and P is the value of the punishment.

  59. 59.

    In a higher point of view, this may prospectively reduce the state’s expenses, if the sanction is effective. If delinquency is prevented or reduced, some of the state’s sources may be available for other social tasks.

  60. 60.

    Gabriel Hallevy, The Recidivist Wants to Be Punished – Punishment as an Incentive to Re-offend, 5 Int’l J. of Punishment & Sentencing 124 (2009).

  61. 61.

    Below at paragraph 3.2.3.2.

  62. 62.

    Susan Easton and Christine Piper, Sentencing and Punishment: The Quest for Justice 124–126 (2nd ed., 2008); Nigel Walker, Why Punish? (1991); Andrew von Hirsch, Anthony E. Bottoms and Elizabeth Burney, Criminal Deterrence and Sentence Severity (1999); Daniel Nagin, General Deterrence: A Review of the Empirical Evidence, Deterrence and Incapacitation: Estimating the Effects of Criminal Sanctions on Crime Rates 95 (Alfred Blumstein, Jacqueline Cohen and Daniel Nagin eds., 1978); Margery Fry, Arms of the Law 76 (1951).

  63. 63.

    James Q. Wilson, Thinking about Crime 123–142 (2nd ed., 1985).

  64. 64.

    Laurence H. Ross, Deterrence Regained: The Cheshire Constabulary’s “Breathalyser Blitz”, 6 J. Legal Stud. 241 (1977).

  65. 65.

    Stephan Hurwitz, Criminology 303 (1952).

  66. 66.

    Easton and Piper, supra note 62, at pp. 124–126.

  67. 67.

    Feuerbach, supra note 47, at p. 117.

  68. 68.

    Johannes Andenaes, The General Preventive Effects of Punishment, 114 U. Pa. L. Rev. 949, 952 (1966).

  69. 69.

    Johannes Andenaes, The Morality of Deterrence, 37 U. Chi. L. Rev. 649 (1970).

  70. 70.

    Jeffrie G. Murphy, Getting Even: Forgiveness and Its Limits (2003); Jeffrie G. Murphy, Marxism and Retribution, 2 Philosophy and Public Affairs 43 (1973).

  71. 71.

    Dan M. Kahan, Between the Economics and Sociology: The New Path of Deterrence, 95 Mich L. Rev. 2477 (1997); Neal Kumar Katyal, Deterrence’s Difficulty, 95 Mich. L. Rev. 2385 (1997); Jonathan S. Abernethy, The Methodology of Death: Reexamining the Deterrence Rationale, 27 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 379 (1996); Craig J. Albert, Challenging Deterrence: New Insights on Capital Punishment Derived from Panel Data, 60 U. Pitt. L. Rev. 321 (1999); James M. Galliher and John F. Galliher, A “Commonsense” Theory of Deterrence and the “Ideology” of Science: The New York State Death Penalty Debate, 92 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 307 (2002); Andrew D. Leipold, The War on Drugs and the Puzzle of Deterrence, 6 J. Gender Race & Just. 111 (2002).

  72. 72.

    For the principle of personal liability in criminal law see Gabriel Hallevy, The Matrix of Derivative Criminal Liability 1–61 (2012).

  73. 73.

    Antony Robin Duff and David Garland, Introduction: Thinking about Punishment, A Reader on Punishment 1, 11 (Antony Robin Duff and David Garland eds., 1994).

  74. 74.

    Easton and Piper, supra note 62, at pp. 124–126.

  75. 75.

    Above at paragraph 2.1.3.

  76. 76.

    Leon Radzinowicz and Roger Hood, A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 vol. 5: The Emergence of Penal Policy (1986).

  77. 77.

    Mirko Bagaric, Punishment and Sentencing: A Rational Approach (2001).

  78. 78.

    Jeffrie G. Murphy, Marxism and Retribution, 2 Philosophy and Public Affairs 43 (1973).

  79. 79.

    Leon Radzinowicz and Roger Hood, A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 vol. 5: The Emergence of Penal Policy 8–57 (1986).

  80. 80.

    Ibid, at pp. 384–386.

  81. 81.

    Andrew Ashworth, Rehabilitation, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 1, 1–10 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  82. 82.

    The American Law Institute, Model Penal Code – Official Draft and Explanatory Notes 73 (1962, 1985).

  83. 83.

    Above at paragraph 2.1.1.

  84. 84.

    Sheldon Glueck, Principles of a Rational Penal Code, 41 Harv. L. Rev. 453 (1928).

  85. 85.

    Jackson Toby, Is Punishment Necessary? 55 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 332 (1964); C. G. Schoenfeld, In Defence of Retribution in the Law, 35 Psychoanalytic Q. 108 (1966).

  86. 86.

    Below at paragraph 5.7.

  87. 87.

    Alexander Paterson, Paterson on Prisons 130 (1951).

  88. 88.

    Robert Martinson, What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform, 35 Public Interest 22 (1974).

  89. 89.

    Douglas S. Lipton, Robert Martinson and Judith Wilks, The Effectiveness of Correctional Treatment: A Survey of Treatment Evaluation Studies (1975).

  90. 90.

    Lee Sechrest, Susan O. White and Elizabeth D. Brown, The Rehabilitation of Criminal Offenders: Problems and Prospects 27–34 (1979).

  91. 91.

    David F. Greenberg, The Corrective Effects of Corrections: A Survey of Evaluation, Corrections and Punishment 111 (David F. Greenberg ed., 1977).

  92. 92.

    Walter C. Bailey, Correctional Outcome: An Evaluation of 100 Reports, 57 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 153 (1966); James Robison and Gerald Smith, The Effectiveness of Correctional Programs, 17 Crime and Delinquency 67 (1971); Gene G. Kassebaum, David A. Ward and Daniel M. Wilner, Prison Treatment and Parole Survival: An Empirical Assessment (1971).

  93. 93.

    A Clockwork Orange (Warner Bros., 1971).

  94. 94.

    Francis T. Cullen and Karen E. Gilbert, Reaffirming Rehabilitation (1982); Norval Morris, The Future of Imprisonment ch. 1–2 (1974).

  95. 95.

    Gresham M. Sykes, Criminology 512 (1978).

  96. 96.

    Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1977); Anthony M. Platt, The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency (2nd ed., 1969, 1977).

  97. 97.

    Francis A. Allen, The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal: Penal Policy and Social Purpose 66 (1981).

  98. 98.

    Nicholas Kittrie, The Right to be Different: Deviance and Enforced Therapy (1971); David J. Rothman, For the Good of All: The Progressive Tradition in Prison Reform, 271 History and Crime: Implications of Criminal Justice and Policy (James A. Inciardi and Charles E. Faupel eds., 1980); Walter C. Bailey, Correctional Outcome: An Evaluation of 100 Reports, 57 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 153 (1966); Roberts Martinson, What Works? Questions and Answers about Prison Reform, 35 Public Interest 22 (1974).

  99. 99.

    Barbara Hudson, Understanding Justice: An Introduction to Ideas, Perspectives and Controversies in Modern Penal Theory 39 (1996, 2003); Jessica Mitford, Kind and Usual Punishment: The Prison Business (1974).

  100. 100.

    Above at paragraph 2.1.1.

  101. 101.

    Andrew von Hirsch, Doing Justice: The Choice of Punishment 74–75 (1976); Andrew von Hirsch, Proportionate Sentences: A Desert Perspective, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 115 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  102. 102.

    Russell L. Christopher, Deterring Retributivism: The Injustice of “Just” Punishment, 96 Nw. U. L. Rev. 843 (2002); Douglas Husak, Holistic Retribution, 88 Cal. L. Rev. 991 (2000); Douglas Husak, Retribution in Criminal Theory, 37 San Diego L. Rev. 959 (2000); Dan Markel, Are Shaming Punishments Beautifully Retributive? Retributivism and the Implications for the Alternative Sanctions Debate, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 2157 (2001).

  103. 103.

    Below at paragraph 2.3.2.

  104. 104.

    Gabriel Hallevy, Therapeutic Victim-Offender Mediation within the Criminal Justice Process – Sharpening the Evaluation of Personal Potential for Rehabilitation while Righting Wrongs under the Alternative-Dispute-Resolution (ADR) Philosophy, 16 Harv. Negot. L. Rev. 65 (2011).

  105. 105.

    David Abrahamsen, Crime and the Human Mind (1945); Elmer H. Johnson, Crime, Correction and Society 44–439 (1968); William C. Menninger, Psychiatrist to a Troubled World (1967).

  106. 106.

    John Lewis Gillin, Criminology and Penology 708 (1927); Paul W. Tappan, Sentences for Sex Criminals, 42 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 332 (1951).

  107. 107.

    Robert W. Kastenmeier and Howard C. Eglit, Parole Release Decision-Making: Rehabilitation, Expertise and the Demise of Mythology, 22 Am. U. L. Rev. 477 (1973); Jessica Mitford, Kind and Usual Punishment: The Prison Business (1974).

  108. 108.

    David P. Farrington and Brandon C. Welsh, Preventing Crime: What Works for Children, Offenders, Victims and Places (2006); Lawrence W. Sherman, David P. Farrington, Doris Leyton MacKenzie and Brandon C. Welsh, Evidence-Based Crime Prevention (2006); Rosemary Sheehan, Gill Mclvor and Chris Trotter, What Works with Women Offenders (2007); Laaman v. Helgemoe, 437 F.Supp. 269 (1977); Secretary of State for the Home Department, [2003] E.W.C.A. Civ. 1522, [2003] All E.R. (D) 56; Secretary of State for Justice, [2008] E.W.C.A. Civ. 30, [2008] All E.R. (D) 15, [2008] 3 All E.R. 104; Anthony E. Bottoms, Empirical Research Relevant to Sentencing Frameworks: Reform and Rehabilitation, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 16 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009); Peter Raynor, Assessing the Research on ‘What Works’, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 19 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009); Francis T. Cullen and Karen E. Gilbert, Reaffirming Rehabilitation, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 28 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009); Andrew von Hirsch and Lisa Maher, Should Penal Rehabilitation Be Revived?, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 33 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  109. 109.

    Richard P. Seiter and Karen R. Kadela, Prisoner Reentry: What Works,What Does Not, and What Is Promissing, 49 Crime and Delinquency 360 (2003); Clive R. Hollin, Treatment Programs for Offenders, 22 Int’l J. of Law & Psychiatry 361 (1999).

  110. 110.

    Francis A. Allen, Legal Values and the Rehabilitative Ideal, 50 J. Crim. L. Criminology & Police Sci. 226 (1959); Livingston Hall and Sheldon Glueck, Criminal Law and Its Enforcement 18 (2nd ed., 1958); Edward Rubin, Just Say No to Retribution, 7 Buff. Crim. L. Rev. 17 (2003).

  111. 111.

    Andrew Ashworth, Rehabilitation, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 1, 2 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009); Peter Raynor and Gwen Robinson, Rehabilitation, Crime and Justice 21 (2005); Shadd Maruna, Making Good: How Convicts Reform and Build their Lives (2001); Stephen Farrall, Rethinking What Works with Offenders: Probation, Social Context, and Desistance from Crime (2002).

  112. 112.

    Above at paragraph 2.1.3.

  113. 113.

    Leon Radzinowicz and Roger Hood, A History of English Criminal Law and Its Administration from 1750 vol. 5: The Emergence of Penal Policy (1986).

  114. 114.

    Mirko Bagaric, Punishment and Sentencing: A Rational Approach (2001).

  115. 115.

    Martin P. Kafka, Sex Offending and Sexual Appetite: The Clinical and Theoretical Relevance of Hypersexual Desire, 47 Int’l J. of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 439 (2003); Matthew Jones, Overcoming the Myth of Free Will in Criminal Law: The True Impact of the Genetic Revolution, 52 Duke L. J. 1031 (2003); Sanford H. Kadish, Excusing Crime, 75 Cal. L. Rev. 257 (1987).

  116. 116.

    Richard N. Holden, Law Enforcement: An Introduction (1992).

  117. 117.

    David Garland, The Culture of Control: Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society 102 (2002).

  118. 118.

    Ibid, at pp. 106–116.

  119. 119.

    Ronald V. Clarke and Derek B. Cornish, Modeling Offenders’ Decisions: A Framework for Policy and Research, 6 Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research 147 (1985); Lawrence E. Cohen and Marcus Felson, Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach, 44 American Sociological Review 588 (1979).

  120. 120.

    Franklin E. Zimring and Gordon J. Hawkins, Deterrence: The Legal Threat in Crime Control (1973); Garland, supra note 117, at pp. 180–190.

  121. 121.

    Ledger Wood, Responsibility and Punishment, 28 Am. Inst. Crim. L. & Criminology 630, 639 (1938).

  122. 122.

    Above at paragraph 2.4.1.

  123. 123.

    Gerald Caplan, Principles of Preventive Psychiatry (1964).

  124. 124.

    Marcus Felson, Crime and Everyday Life: Insights and Implications for Society 17, 95, 109, 120 (1994).

  125. 125.

    Ronald V. Clarke, Situational Crime Prevention: Successful Case Studies (1992); Ronald V. Clarke and Derek B. Cornish, Modeling Offenders’ Decisions: A Framework for Policy and Research, 6 Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of Research 147 (1985).

  126. 126.

    Don M. Gottfredson, Assessment and Prediction Methods in Crime and Delinquency, Presidents National Commission for Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime (1967); Joan Petersilia and Peter W. Greenwood, Mandatory Prison Sentences: Their Projected Effects on Crime and Prison Populations, 69 J. Crim. L. & Criminology 604 (1978).

  127. 127.

    John W. Hinton, Dangerousness: Problems of Assessment and Prediction (1983); John Monahan, Predicting Violent Behavior: An Assessment of Clinical Techniques (1981); Peter Greenwood and Allan Abrahamse, Selective Incapacitation (1982).

  128. 128.

    Jack P. Gibbs, Crime, Punishment and Deterrence 58 (1975).

  129. 129.

    Barbara Hudson, Understanding Justice: An Introduction to Ideas, Perspectives and Controversies in Modern Penal Theory 32 (1996, 2003).

  130. 130.

    Joseph Murray, The Effects of Imprisonment on Families and Children of Prisoners, The Effects of Imprisonment 442 (Alison Liebling and Shadd Maruna eds., 2005); Shadd Maruna and Thomas P. Le Bel, Welcome Home? Examining the “Reentry Court” Concept from a Strength-Based Perspective, 4 Western Criminology Review 91 (2003).

  131. 131.

    Malcolm M. Feeley and Jonathan Simon, The New Penology: Notes on the Emerging Strategy of Corrections and Its Implications, 30 Criminology 449 (1992); Andrew von Hirsch, Incapacitation, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 75 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009); Andrew von Hirsch, Past or Future Crimes: Deservedness and Dangerousness in the Sentencing of Criminals 176–178 (1985).

  132. 132.

    Franklin E. Zimring and Gordon J. Hawkins, Deterrence: The Legal Threat in Crime Control (1973).

  133. 133.

    Mark H. Moore, Susan R. Estrich, Daniel McGillis and William Spellman, Dealing with Dangerous Offenders: The Elusive Target of Justice (1985).

  134. 134.

    Anthony E. Bottoms and Roger Brownsword, Incapacitation and “Vivid Danger”, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 83 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009); Andrew von Hirsch and Andrew Ashworth, Extending Sentences for Dangerousness: Reflections on the Bottoms-Brownsword Model, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 85 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  135. 135.

    Andrew von Hirsch and Lila Kazemian, Predictive Sentencing and Selective Incapacitation, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 95 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009); Lila Kazemian and David P. Farrington, Exploring Residual Career Length and Residual Number of Offenses for Two Generations of Repeat Offenders, 43 J. of Research in Crime and Delinquency 89 (2006).

  136. 136.

    Arne Lonberg, The Penal System of Denmark (1975); Jean E. Floud and Warren Young, Dangerousness and Criminal Justice (1981); Linda Sleffel, The Law and the Dangerous Criminal (1977); Parole Board, [2003] U.K.H.L. 42, [2004] 1 A.C. 1.

  137. 137.

    W.H. Hammond and Edna Chayen, Persistent Criminals (1963); David A. Thomas, Principles of Sentencing 309 (1980); Lawrence Davidoff and John Barkway, Extended Terms of Imprisonment for Persistent Offenders, 21 Home Office Research Bulletin 43 (1986); Andrew von Hirsch, Prediction of Criminal Conduct and Preventive Confinement of Convicted Persons, 21 Buff. L. Rev. 717 (1972).

  138. 138.

    See, e.g., article 104 of the Sexual Offences Act, 2003, c.42; article 227 of the Criminal Justice Act, 2003, c.44; articles 98–101 of the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, 2008, c.4; Richards, [2006] E.W.C.A. Crim. 2519, [2007] Crim. L.R. 173.

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    Jonathan Simon, The Ideological Effect of Actuarial Practices, 22 Law & Society Rev. 771 (1988); Jonathan Simon, Megan’s Law: Crime and Democracy in Late Modern America, 25 Law & Social Inquiry 1111 (2000).

  140. 140.

    Joseph B. Vaughn, A Survey of Juvenile Electronic Monitoring and Home Confinement Programs, 40 Juvenile & Fam. C. J. 1 (1989).

  141. 141.

    Nigel Walker, Punishment, Danger and Stigma: The Morality of Criminal Justice ch. 5 (1980); Marvin E. Wolfgang, Current Trends in Penal Philosophy, 14 Isr. L. Rev. 427 (1979).

  142. 142.

    Gabriel Hallevy, The Matrix of Derivative Criminal Liability 75–83 (2012).

  143. 143.

    Above at paragraph 2.1.3.

  144. 144.

    Norval Morris, Incapacitation within Limits, Principled Sentencing: Readings on Theory and Policy 90 (Andrew von Hirsch, Andrew Ashworth and Julian Roberts eds., 3rd ed., 2009).

  145. 145.

    Mirko Bagaric, Punishment and Sentencing: A Rational Approach (2001).

  146. 146.

    Herbert L. Packer, The Practical Limits of Deterrence, Contemporary Punishment 102, 105 (Rudolph J. Gerber, Patrick D. McAnany and Norval Morris eds., 1972).

  147. 147.

    Martin P. Kafka, Sex Offending and Sexual Appetite: The Clinical and Theoretical Relevance of Hypersexual Desire, 47 Int’l J. of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 439 (2003); Matthew Jones, Overcoming the Myth of Free Will in Criminal Law: The True Impact of the Genetic Revolution, 52 Duke L. J. 1031 (2003); Sanford H. Kadish, Excusing Crime, 75 Cal. L. Rev. 257 (1987).

  148. 148.

    Livingston Hall and Sheldon Glueck, Criminal Law and Its Enforcement 17 (2nd ed., 1958).

  149. 149.

    See above at paragraphs 2.1.1 and 2.2.1.

  150. 150.

    Jerome Hall, General Principles of Criminal Law 308 (2nd ed., 1960, 2005); Leon Radzinowicz, Ideology and Crime 113–127 (1966).

  151. 151.

    Henry M. Hart Jr., The Aims of the Criminal Law, 23 Law & Contemp. Probs. 401 (1958); Philip Bean, Punishment 44–46 (1981).

  152. 152.

    Livingston Hall, Reduction of Criminal Sentences on Appeal: I, 37 Colum. L. Rev. 521, 528–556 (1937).

  153. 153.

    See, e.g., In re Michael, 41 Conn.Supp. 229, 566 A.2d 446 (1989).

  154. 154.

    See, e.g., Williams v. New York, 337 U.S. 241, 69 S.Ct. 1079, 93 L.Ed. 1337 (1949); Hopt v. Utah, 110 U.S. 574, 4 S.Ct. 202, 28 L.Ed. 262 (1884); United States v. Barker, 771 F.2d 1362 (9th Cir.1985).

  155. 155.

    People v. Letterlough, 86 N.Y.2d 259, 631 N.Y.S.2d 105, 655 N.E.2d 146 (1995); Francis A. Allen, The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal: Penal Policy and Social Purpose 6 (1981); Alan M. Dershowitz, Background Paper, Report of the Twentieth Century Fund Task Force on Criminal Sentencing, Fair and Certain Punishment 98 (1976); Martin R. Gardner, The Renaissance of Retribution – An Examination of Doing Justice, 1976 Wis. L. Rev. 781 (1976).

  156. 156.

    James B. Jacobs, Sentencing by Prison Personnel: Good Time, 30 U.C.L.A. L. Rev. 217 (1982); Karen Skrivseth, Abolishing Parole: Assuring Fairness and Certainty in Sentencing, 7 Hofstra L. Rev. 281 (1979); Marvin Zalman, The Rise and Fall of the Indeterminate Sentence, 24 Wayne L. Rev. 857 (1978).

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    Gabriel Hallevy

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Hallevy, G. (2013). General Purposes of Punishment. In: The Right to Be Punished. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32388-1_2

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