Abstract
Contaminated sites can pose a significant risk to public health and the environment. Many different insitu or ex-situ remediation technologies have been developed throughout the years to mitigate the risk imposed by soil contamination. These technologies may be contaminant and site specific. Remediation can be achieved by contaminated soil removal, contaminant removal, containment, stabilization/solidification, transformation, or different combinations of these mechanisms. It may also be necessary to apply these technologies in combination to achieve remediation goals, in particular, for cases of contamination by multiple contaminants. Some of the remediation technologies currently available are presented in this invited lecture, in particular, the theory, state of development, applicability, limitations, remediation efficiency, cost effectiveness, and potential side effects of the remediation technologies are presented. Details of performance monitoring are described, criteria on selection of the appropriate remediation technology are given, and remediation cost estimate procedure is outlined. As innovative remediation technologies are being developed continuingly to satisfy various needs, the technologies presented in this invited lecture are by no means exhaustive. Nonetheless, a comprehensive list of references is given for readers interested in particular technologies to conduct their further exploration.
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Soil Washing and Solvent Extraction
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Matheson LJ, Goldberg WC, Bostick WD, Harris L (2002). Analysis of uranium-contaminated zero valent iron media sampled from permeable reactive barriers installed at U.S. Department of Energy sites in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and Durango, Colorado. Handbook of groundwater remediation using permeable reactive barriers. Naftz, D.L., Morrison S.J., Fuller C.C. and Davis J.A. (eds.) Academic Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 343–367.
Morrison SJ, Naftz DL, Davis JA, Fuller CC (2002). Introduction to groundwater remediation of metals, radionuclides, and nutrients with permeable reactive barriers. Handbook of groundwater remediation using permeable reactive barriers. Naftz, D.L., Morrison S.J., Fuller C.C. and Davis J.A. (eds.) Academic Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1–15.
Naftz DL, Fuller CC, Davis JA, Morrison ST, Feltcorn EM, Rowland RC, Freethey GW, Wilkowske C, Piana M (2002). Field demonstration of three permeable reactive barriers to control uranium contamination in groundwater, Fry Canyon, Utah. Handbook of groundwater remediation using permeable reactive barriers. Naftz, D.L., Morrison S.J., Fuller C.C. and Davis J.A. (eds.) Academic Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 402–434.
Palmer PL (2001). Permeable treatment barriers. In situ treatment technology, 2nd edition, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL, U.S.A., 459–482.
Schwartz FW & Xu Y (1992). Modeling the behavior of a reactive barrier system for lead. Modern Trends in Hydrogeology, Proc., 1992 Conference of the Canadian National Chapter, International Association of Hydrogeologists, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
Tratnyek PG, Scherer MM, Johnson TL, Matheson LJ (2003). Permeable reactive barriers of iron and other zero-valent metals. Chemical degradation methods for wastes and pollutants: Environmental and industrial applications. Tarr M.A. (ed.) Marcel Dekker, New York, NY, U.S.A., 371–421.
U.S. EPA (1999). Field applications of in situ remediation technologies: Permeable reactive barriers. Report No. EPA 542-R-99-002, Technology Innovation Office, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Vidic RD & Pohland FG (2000). In situ groundwater remediation using treatment walls. Emerging technogies in hazardous waste management 8. Tedder D.W. and Pohland F.G. (eds.) Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, NY, U.S.A., 119–139.
Waite TD, Davis JA, Payne TE, Waychunas GA, Xu N (1994). Uranium(VI) adsorption to ferrihydrite: Application of a surface complexation model. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 58(24):5465–5478.
Waite TD, Desmier R, Melville M, Macdonald B (2002). Preliminary investigation into the suitability of permeable reactive barriers for the treatment of acid sulfate soils discharge. Handbook of groundwater remediation using permeable reactive barriers. Naftz, D.L., Morrison S.J., Fuller C.C. and Davis J.A. (eds.) Academic Press, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 67–104.
Bioremediation and Biodegradation
Abdelouas A, Lutze W, Gong W, Nuttall EH, Strietelmeier BA, Travis BJ (2000). Biological reduction of uranium in groundwater and subsurface soil. Science of the Total Environment, 250(1):21–35.
Al-Daher R, Al-Awadhi N, El-Nawawy A (1998). Bioremediation of damaged desert environment using the windrow soil pile system in Kuwait. Environment International, 24(1-2):175–180.
Al-Daher R, Al-Awadhi N, Yateem A, Balba MT, El-Nawawy A (2001). Compost soil piles for treatment of oil-contaminated soil. Soil & Sediment Contamination, 10(2):197–209.
Alexander M (1999). Biodegradation and bioremediation, 2nd edition. Academic Press, San Diego, CA, U.S.A.
Anderson WC (1995). Editor. Innovative site remediation technology. Vol. 1—Bioremediation. American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Annapolis, MD, U.S.A.
Atagana HI, Haynes RJ, Wallis FM (2003). Optimization of soil physical and chemical conditions for the bioremediation of creosote-contaminated soil. Biodegradation, 14(4):297–307.
Aulenta F, Majone M, Tandoi V (2006). Enhanced anaerobic bioremediation of chlorinated solvents: environmental factors influencing microbial activity and their relevance under field conditions. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 81(9):1463–1474.
Balba MT, Al-Awadhi N, Al-Daher R (1998). Bioremediation of oil-contaminated soil: microbiological methods for feasibility assessment and field evaluation. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 32(2):155–164.
Balba MT, Al-Awadhi N, Al-Daher R, Chino H, Tsuji H (1996). Remediation and rehabilitation of oil-lake beds in Kuwait. 1. Bioremediation of oilcontaminated soil. Restoration and rehabilitation of the desert environment. Al-Awadhi N., Balba M.T. and Kamizawa C. (eds.) Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 21–40.
Banwart SA, Thomton S, Rees H, Lerner D, Wilson R, Romero-Gonzalez M (2007). In situ bioremediation by natural attenuation: from lab to field scale. Water dynamics. AIP Conference Proceedings, 898:207–210.
Carnegie D & Ramsay JA (2009). Anaerobic ethylene glycol degradation by microorganisms in poplar and willow rhizospheres. Biodegradation, 20(4):551–558.
Diels L & Lookman R (2007). Microbial systems for insitu soil and groundwater remediation. Advanced science and technology for biological decontamination of sites affected by chemical and radiological nuclear agents. NATO Science Series IV Earth and Environmental Sciences, 75:61–77.
Evans PJ & Trute MM (2006). In situ bioremediation of nitrate and perchlorate in vadose zone soil for groundwater protection using gaseous electron donor injection technology. Water Environment Research, 78(13):2436–2446.
Gallagher JR & Sorensen JA (2001). Biological treatment of amine wastes from the gas industry. Ex situ biological treatment technologies. Magar V.S., VonFahnestock F.M. and Leeson A. (eds.) Bioremediation Series, Battelle Press, Columbus, OH, U.S.A., 6(6):141–148.
Groudev S, Spasova I, Nicolova M, Georgiev P (2008). Bioremediation in situ of polluted soil in a uranium deposit. Methods and techniques for cleaning-up contaminated site. Annable M.D., Teodorescu M., Hlavinek P. and Diels L. (eds.) Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 25–34.
Gunderson CA, Kostuk JM, Gibbs MH, Napolitano GE, Wicker LF, Richmond JE, Stewart AJ (1997). Multispecies toxicity assessment of compost produced in bioremediation of an explosives-contaminated sediment. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 16(12):2529–2537.
Hartley W, Uffindell L, Plumb A, Rawlinson HA, Putwain P, Dickinson NM (2008). Assessing biological indicators for remediated anthropogenic urban soils. Science of the Total Environment, 405(1-3):358–369.
Head IM, Singleton I. and Milner M.G. (2003). Bioremediation: A critical review. Horizon Scientific Press, Wymondham, U.K.
Hicks P (1999). The use of oxygen release compound (ORC®) for enhanced bioremediation. Proc., the 1998 National Conference on Environmental Remediation Science and Technology, Greensboro, NC, U.S.A., 63–79.
Hinchee RE, Leeson A, Semprini L (1995a). Editors. Bioremediation of chlorinated solvent. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH, U.S.A.
Hinchee RE, Means JL, Burris DR (1995b). Editors. Bioremediation of inorganics. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH, U.S.A.
Leahy MC, Nelson CH, Fiorentine AM, Schmitz RJ (1997). Ozonation as a polish technology for in situ bioremediation. Proc., 4th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, New Orleans, LA, U.S.A., 479–483.
Livingston RJ & Islam MR (1999). Laboratory modeling, field study, and numerical simulation of bioremediation of petroleum contaminants. Energy Sources, 21(1-2):113–129.
Lynch JM & Moffat AJ (2005). Bioremediation— Prospects for the future application of innovative applied biological research. Annals of Applied Biology, 146(2):217–221.
McQueen D, Joshi CJ, Thongkheung A, Jordan TL (1999). Isolation and growth of glycol degrading bacteia. Proc., the 1998 National Conference on Environmental Remediation Science and Technology, Greensboro, NC, U.S.A., 131–140.
National Research Council (1993). In situ bioremediation: When does it work? National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Makkar RS & Rockne KJ (2003). Comparison of synthetic surfactants and biosurfactants in enhancing biodegradation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 22(10):2280–2292.
Perfurmo A, Banat IM, Marchant R (2006). The use of thermophilic bacteria in accelerated hydrocarbon bioremediation. Environmental problems in coastal regions VI: Including oil spill studies. Brebbia C.A. (ed.) WIT Press, Southampton, U.K., 67–77.
Perfumo A, Banat IM, Marchant R, Vezzulli L (2007). Thermally enhanced approaches for bioremediation of hydrocarbon-contaminated soils. Chemosphere, 66(1):179–184.
Pinelli D, Nocentini M, Fava F (1999). In situ bioremediation of a soil contaminated by mineral oil: A case study. Proc., 5th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, San Diego, CA, U.S.A., 313–318.
Rayner JL, Snape I, Walworth JL, Harvey PM, Ferguson SH (2007). Petroleum-hydrocarbon contamination and remediation by microbioventing at sub-Antarctic Macquarie Island. Cold Regions Science and Technology, 48(2):139–153.
Rodzewich C, Belanger C, Moreau N, Pouliot M, Fellows N (2006). Treatment of PCP-contaminated soil using an engineered ex situ biopile process on a former wood treatment superfund site. Contaminated soils, sediments and water volume 10: successes and challenges. Calabrese E.J., Kostecki P.T. and Dragun J. (eds.) Contaminated Soils Series, Springer, New York, NY, U.S.A., 327–338.
Rojas-Avelizapa NG, Roldan-Carrillo T, Zegarra-Martinez H, Munoz-Colunga AM, Fernandez-Linares LC (2007). A field trial for an ex-situ bioremediation of a drilling mud-polluted site. Chemosphere, 66(9):1595–1600.
Srinivasan U & Glaser JA (1999). The validity of erogosterol-based fungal biomass estimate in bioremediation. Proc., 5th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, San Diego, CA, U.S.A., 103–109.
Suko T, Fujikawa T, Miyazaki T (2006). Transport phenomena of volatile solute in soil during bioventing technology. Contaminated sediments: Evaluation and remediation techniques. Fukue M., Kita K., Ohtsubo M. and Chaney R., Editors. ASTM STP 1482, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, U.S.A., 374–379.
Thomas AO and Lester JN (1993). The microbial remediation of former gasworks sites—A review. Environmental Technology, 14(1): 1–24.
Toffoletto L, Deschenes L, Samson R (2005). LCA of ex-situ bioremediation of diesel-contaminated soil. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 10(6):406–416.
Tsai TT, Kao CM, Yeh TY, Liang SH, Chien HY (2009). Application of surfactant enhanced permanganate oxidation and bidegradation of trichloroethylene in groundwater. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 161(1):111–119.
Turrell J, Clark L, Berbenni P, Nobili F (1998). Remediation of groundwater and aquifer material at the Rho Oil Refinery, with particular reference to the use of ex situ bioremediation. Proc., 6th International FZK/TNO Conference on Contaminated Soil, Edinburgh, Scotland, U.K., 1185–1186.
Weesner B, Acree S, McAlary T, Salvo JJ (1998). Design and operation of a horizontal well, in situ bioremediation system. Proc., 1st International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Vol 6.—Designing and Applying Treatment Technologies, Monterey, CA, U.S.A.,9–14.
Phytoremediation
Asada M, Parkpian P, Horiuchi S (2006). Remediation technology for boron and fluoride contaminated sediments using green plants. Contaminated sediments: Evaluation and remediation techniques. Fukue M., Kita K., Ohtsubo M. and Chaney R. (eds.) ASTM STP 1482, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, U.S.A., 304–310.
Barbafieri M (2001). Heavy metal chemical species in soil in relation to plant uptake for phytoremediation strategies. Water-rock interaction, Vols. 1 and 2. Cidu R. (ed.) A.A. Balkema, Leiden, the Netherlands, 1039–1042.
Carman EP & Crossman TL (2001). Phytoremediation. In situ treatment technology, 2nd edition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, U.S.A., 391–435.
Claus D, Dietze H, Gerth A, Grosser W, Hebner A (2007). Application of agronomic practice improves phytoextraction on a multipolluted site. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 15(4):208–212.
Gao YZ, Ling WT, Zhu LZ, Zhao BW, Zheng QS (2007). Surfactant-enhanced phytoremediation of soils contaminated with hydrophobic organic contaminants: Potential and assessment. Pedosphere, 17(4):409–418.
King DJ, Doronila AI, Feenstra C, Baker AJM, Woodrow IE (2008). Phytostabilisation of arsenical gold mine tailings using four Eucalyptus species: Growth, arsenic uptake and availability after five years. Science of the Total Environment, 406(1-2):35–42.
Kvesitadze G, Khatisachvili G, Sadunishvili T, Ramsden JJ (2006). Biochemical mechanisms of detoxification in higher plants: Basis of phytoremediation. Springer, Berlin, Germany.
Lin Q, Shen KL, Zhao HM, Li WH (2008). Growth response of Zea mays L. in pyrene-copper cocontaminated soil and the fate of pollutants. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 150(3):515–521.
Lin ZQ, Schemenauer RS, Cervinka V, Zayed A, Lee A, Terry N (2000). Selenium volatilization from a soil-plant system for the remediation of contaminated water and soil in the San Joaquin Valley. Journal of Environmental Quality, 29(4):1048–1056.
Meers E, Ruttens A, Hopgood MJ, Samson D, Tack FMG (2005). Comparison of EDTA and EDDS as potential soil amendments for enhanced phytoextraction of heavy metals. Chemosphere, 58(8):1011–1022.
Mendez MO & Maier RM (2008). Phytostabilization of mine tailings in arid and semiarid environments — An emerging remediation technology. Environmental Health Perspectives, 116(3):278–283.
Padmavathiamma PK & Li LY (2007). Phytoremediation technology: Hyper-accumulation metals in plants. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 184(1-4):105–126.
Schnoor JL, Licht LA, McCutcheon SC, Wolfe NL, Carreira LH (1995). Phytoremediation of organic and nutrient contaminants. Environmental Science & Technology, 29(7):A318–A323.
Shirdam R, Zand AD, Bidhendi GN, Mehrdadi N (2008). Phytoremediation of hydrocarbon-contami-nated soils with emphasis on the effect of petroleum hydrocarbons on the growth of plant species. Phytoprotection, 89(1):21–29.
Suresh B & Ravishankar GA (2004). Phytoremediation — A novel and promising approach for environmental clean-up. Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 24(2-3):97–124.
Susarla S, Medina VF, McCutcheon SC (2002). Phytoremediation: An ecological solution to organic chemical contamination. Ecological Engineering, 18(5):647–658.
Tiwari KK, Dwivedi S, Mishra S, Srivastava S, Tripathi RD, Singh NK, Chakraborty S (2008). Phytoremediation efficiency of Portulaca tuberosa rox and Portulaca oleracea L. naturally growing in an industrial effluent irrigated area in Vadodra, Gujrat, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 147(1-3): 15–22.
U.S. EPA (1998). A citizen&s guide to phytoremediation. EPA 542-F-98-011, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response, U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.
Willey N (2007). Editor. Phytoremediation: Methods and reviews. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, U.S.A.
Wolfe AK & Bjornstad DJ (2002). Why would anyone object? An exploration of social aspects of phytoremediation acceptability. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 21(5): 429–438.
Air Sparging / Soil Vapor Extraction
Anderson WC (1994). Editor. Innovative site remediation technology. Vol. 8—Vacuum vapor extraction. American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Annapolis, MD, U.S.A.
Bass DH, Hastings NA, Brown RA (2000). Performance of air sparging systems: a review of case studies. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 72(2-3):101–119.
Braida W & Ong SK (2000). Modeling of air sparging of VOC-contaminated soil columns. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 41(3-4):385–402.
Frank U & Barkley N (1995). Remediation of low permeability subsurface formations by fracturing enhancement of soil vapor extraction. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 40(2):191–201.
Hsu HT & Yeung AT (1996). Development of a mathematical model for design of multiple-well soil vapor extraction systems. Environmental toxicology and risk assessment: biomarkers and risk assessment —Fifth volume. Bengtson D.A. and Henshel D.S. (eds.) ASTM STP 1306, ASTM, PA, PA, U.S.A., 441–455.
Kaslusky SF & Udell KS (2005). Co-injection of air and steam for the prevention of the downward migration of DNAPLs during steam enhanced extraction: An experimental evaluation of optimum injection ratio predictions. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 77(4):325–347.
Liang CJ & Lee IL (2008). In situ iron activated persulfate oxidative fluid sparging treatment of TCE contamination—A proof of concept study. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 100(3-4):91–100.
Marley MC, Hazebrouck DJ, Walsh MT (1992). The application of insitu air sparging as an innovative soils and ground-water remediation technology. Ground Water Monitoring and Remediation, 12(2):137–145.
Parsons EG, Barclay C, Thirumirthi D (1997). In situ air induction as an innovative technology for bioremediation in the capillary zone. Proc., 4th International In Situ and On-Site Bioremediation Symposium, New Orleans, LA, U.S.A., 277–282.
Reddy KR & Adams JA (2002). Cleanup of chemical spills using air sparging. The handbook of hazardous materials spills technology. M. Fingas (ed.) McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, U.S.A., Chapter 14.
Schulenberg JW & Reeves HW (2002). Axi-symmetric simulation of soil vapor extraction influenced by soil fracturing. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 57(3-4): 189–222.
Smith W (1998). Use of AS/SVE to remediate chlorinated solvents. Proc., 1st International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, Vol. 1—Risk, Resource, and Regulatory Issues, Monterey, CA, U.S.A., 187–192.
Zhao L & Zytner RG (2004). The application of FEMLAB in modeling soil vapor extraction. Proc., World Engineers& Convention 2004: Vol. D Environment Protection and Disaster Mitigation, Shanghai, China, 115–119.
Electrochemical Remediation
Acar YB, Rabbi MF, Ozsu EE (1997). Electrokinetic injection of ammonium and sulfate ions into sand and kaolinite beds. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(3):239–249.
Alshawabkeh AN, Yeung AT, Bricka MR (1999). Practical aspects of in-situ electrokinetic extraction. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, 125(1): 27–35.
Barton WA, Miller SA, Veal CJ (1999). The electrodewatering of sewage sludges. Drying Technology, 17(3):497–522.
Bonilla A, Cuesta P, Zubiaga R, de Baranda MS, Iglesias J (1999). In situ contaminated soil remediation and contaminated soil containment using electrokinetic techniques. Proc., Global Symposium on Recycling, Waste Treatment and Clean Technology, San Sebastian, Spain, 2571–2581.
Buckland DG, Shang JQ, Mohamedelhassan E (2000). Electrokinetic sedimentation of contaminated Welland River sediment. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 37(4):735–747.
Budhu M, Rutherford M, Sills G, Rasmussen W (1997). Transport of nitrates through clay using electrokinetics. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(12):1251–1253.
Campanella RG (2008). Geo-environmental site characterization. The 3rd James K. Mitchell Lecture, Geotechnical and geophysical site characterization. Proc., 3rd International Conference on Site Characterization, Taipei, China 3–15.
Chang JH, Qiang ZM, Huang CP (2006). Remediation and stimulation of selected chlorinated organic solvents in unsaturated soil by a specific enhanced electrokinetics. Colloids and Surfaces A— Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 287(1-3):86–93.
Chen XJ, Shen ZM, Lei YM, Zheng SS, Ju BX, Wang WH (2006). Effects of electrokinetics on bioavailability of soil nutrients. Soil Science, 171(8):638–647.
Darilek GT, Corapcioglu MY, Yeung AT (1996). Sealing leaks in geomembrane liners using electrophoresis. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, 122(6):540–544.
DeFlaun MF & Condee CW (1997). Electrokinetic transport of bacteria. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 55(1-3):263–277.
Faulkner DWS, Hopkinson L, Cundy AB (2005). Electrokinetic generation of reactive iron-rich barriers in wet sediments: Implications for contaminated land management. Mineralogical Magazine, 69(5): 749–757.
Ho SV, Athmer C, Sheridan PW, Hughes BM, Orth R, McKenzie D, Brodsky PH, Shapiro A, Thornton R, Salvo J, Schultz D, Landis R, Griffith R, Shoemaker S (1999a). The lasagna technology for in situ soil remediation. 1. Small field test. Environmental Science & Technology, 33(7): 1086–1091.
Ho SV, Athmer C, Sheridan PW, Hughes BM, Orth R, McKenzie D, Brodsky PH, Shapiro AM, Sivavec TM, Salvo J, Schultz D, Landis R, Griffith R, Shoemaker S (1999b). The lasagna technology for in situ soil remediation. 2. Large field test. Environmental Science & Technology, 33(7): 1092–1099.
Ho SV, Sheridan PW, Athmer CJ, Heitkamp MA, Brackin JM, Weber D, Brodsky PH (1995). Integrated in situ soil remediation technology: The Lasagna process. Environmental Science & Technology, 29(10): 2528–2534.
Hunter RJ (1981). Zeta potential in colloid science: Principles and applications. Academic Press, London, U.K.
Iyer R (2001). Electrokinetic remediation. Particulate Science and Technology, 19(3):219–228.
Jiradecha C, Urgun-Demirtas M, Pagilla K. (2006). Enhanced electrokinetic dissolution of naphthalene and 2,4-DNT from contaminated soils. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 136(1):61–67.
Kim GN, Jung YH, Lee JJ, Moon JK, Jung CH (2008). Development of electrokinetic-flushing technology for the remediation of contaminated soil around nuclear facilities. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 14(6):732–738.
Kim SO, Kim WS, Kim KW (2005). Evaluation of electrokinetic remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 27(5-6): 443–453.
Kim SS & Han SJ (2003). Application of an enhanced electrokinetic ion injection system to bioremediation. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 146(1-4):365–377.
Lageman R, Clarke RL, Pool W (2005). Electro-reclamation, a versatile soil remediation solution. Engineering Geology, 77(3-4):191–201.
Lee HS & Lee K (2001). Bioremediation of dieselcontaminated soil by bacterial cells transported by electrokinetics. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 11(6): 1038–1045.
Luo QS, Wang H, Zhang XH, Fan XY, Qian Y (2006). In situ bioelectrokinetic remediation of phenol-contaminated soil by use of an electrode matrix and a rotational operation mode. Chemosphere, 64(3): 415–422.
Maini G, Sharman AK, Sunderland G, Knowles CJ, Jackman S (2000). An integrated method incorporating sulfur-oxidising bacteria and electrokinetics to enhance removal of copper from contaminated soil. Environmental Science & Technology, 34(6):1081–1087.
Maturi K & Reddy KR (2008). Cosolvent-enhanced desorption and transport of heavy metals and organic contaminants in soils during electrokinetic remediation. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 189(1-4):199–211.
Mitchell JK & Yeung AT (1991). Electro-kinetic flow barriers in compacted clay. Geotechnical Engineering 1990. Transportation Research Record 1288, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., U.S.A., 1–9.
Mitchell JK (1993). Fundamentals of soil behavior, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, U.S.A.
Murillo-Rivera B, Labastida I, Barrón J, Oropeza-Guzman MT, González I, Teutli-Leon MMM (2009). Influence of anolyte and catholyte composition on TPHs removal from low permeability soil by electrokinetic reclamation. Electrochimica Acta, 54(7): 2119–2124.
O’Connor CS, Lepp NW, Edwards R, Sunderland G (2003). The combined use of electrokinetic remediation and phytoremediation to decontaminate metal polluted soils: A laboratory-scale feasibility study. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 84(1-2): 141–158.
Rabbi MF, Clark B, Gale RJ, Ozsu-Acar E, Pardue J, Jackson A (2000). In situ TCE bioremediation study using electrokinetic cometabolite injection. Waste Management, 20(4):279–286.
Reddy KR, Chaparro C, Saichek RE (2003a). Iodide-enhanced electrokinetic remediation of mercurycontaminated soils. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE 129(12):1137–1148.
Reddy KR, Chinthamreddy S, Saicheck RE, Cutright TJ (2003b). Nutrient amendment for the bioremediation of a chromium-contaminated soil by electrokinetics. Energy Sources, 25(9):931–943.
Sah JG & Lin LY (2000). Electrokinetic study on copper contaminated soils. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part A—Toxic/Hazardous Substances & Environmental Engineering, 35(7):1117–1139.
Saichek RE & Reddy KR (2005a). Electrokinetically enhanced remediation of hydrophobic organic compounds in soils: A review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 35(2):115–192.
Saichek RE & Reddy KR (2005b). Surfactant-enhanced electrokinetic remediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in heterogeneous subsurface environments. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science, 4(5):327–339.
Thevanayagam S & Rishindran T (1998). Injection of nutrients and TEAs in clayey soils using electrokinetics. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 124(4): 330–338.
Vijh AK (1995). Electrochemical aspects of electroosmotic dewatering of clay suspensions. Drying Technology, 13(1&2):215–224.
Yang GCC & Liu CY (2001). Remediation of TCE contaminated soils by in situ EK-Fenton process. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 85(3):317–331.
Yang GCC & Long Y-W (1999). Removal and degradation of phenol in a saturated flow by in-situ electrokinetic remediation and Fenton-like process. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 69(3):259–271.
Yeung AT (1992). Diffuse double layer equations in SI units. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 118(12):2000–2005.
Yeung AT (1993). Electro-kinetic barrier to contaminant transport. Proc., International Conference on Environmental Management: Geo-water & Engineering Aspects, Wollongong, Australia, 239–244.
Yeung AT (1994). Electrokinetic flow processes in porous media and their applications. Advances in porous media. Corapcioglu M.Y. (ed.) Elsevier, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 2, 309–395.
Yeung AT (2006) Contaminant extractability by electrokinetics. Environmental Engineering Science, 23(1): 202–224.
Yeung AT (2008). Electrokinetics for soil remediation. Environmental Geotechnology and Global Sustainable Development 2008. Yeung A.T. and Lo I.M.C., Editors. Advanced Technovation Limited, Hong Kong, China, 16–25.
Yeung AT (2009). Geochemical processes affecting electrochemical remediation. Electrochemical remediation technologies for polluted soils, sediments and groundwater. Reddy K.R. and Cameselle C. (eds.) John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, U.S.A., in press.
Yeung AT, Chung M, Corapcioglu MY, Stallard WM (1997b). Impoundment liner repair by electrophoresis of clay. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, 123(10):993–1001.
Yeung AT, Darilek GT, Corapcioglu MY (1997a). Electrophoresis: Innovative technique to repair leaking impoundments. In situ remediation of the geoenvironment. Geotechnical Special Publication No. 71, ASCE, Reston, VA, U.S.A., 560–573.
Yeung AT & Hsu C (2005). Electrokinetic remediation of cadmium-contaminated clay. Journal of Environmental Engineering, ASCE, 131(2), 298–304.
Yeung AT, Hsu C, Menon RM (1996). EDTA-enhanced electrokinetic extraction of lead. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 122(8):666–673.
Yuan C & Weng CH (2002). Sludge dewatering by electrokinetic technique: Effect of processing time and potential gradient. Advances in Environmental Research, 7(3):727–732.
Thermal Treatment
Anderson WC (1993). Editor. Innovative site remediation technology. Vol. 6—Thermal desorption. American Academy of Environmental Engineers, Annapolis, MD, U.S.A.
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Selection of Remediation Technologies
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Cost Estimate
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Yeung, A.T. (2010). Remediation Technologies for Contaminated Sites. In: Chen, Y., Zhan, L., Tang, X. (eds) Advances in Environmental Geotechnics. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04460-1_25
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