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South Sudan

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Book cover The End of China’s Non-Intervention Policy in Africa

Part of the book series: Critical Studies of the Asia-Pacific ((CSAP))

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Abstract

This chapter explores China’s intervention in South Sudan’s intrastate armed conflict. This chapter starts by tracing historical relations between China and southern Sudan actors since Sudan’s independence in 1956. It then examines China’s pragmatic foreign policy strategies, first in transforming its antagonistic relationship with the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) into an amiable one, and then in balancing its triangulated relationship with Khartoum and Juba. All in all, the argument advanced in this chapter is that, unlike in the case of Libya and Mali, China’s intervention in South Sudan’s armed conflict was proactive, deliberate and assertive, suggesting that its perception of African intrastate armed conflicts as threatening to its external economic interests is evolving.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Large, D 2011, ‘Southern Sudan and China: Enemies into friends?’ in D Large & LA Patey (eds.), Sudan looks east: China, India and the politics of Asian alternatives, James Currey, New York, pp. 157–175.

  2. 2.

    The Comprehensive Peace Agreement was an amalgamation of six agreements signed between 2002 and 2004 by the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army. The following constituted the CPA: (1) The Protocol of Machakos (20 September 2002); (2) The Protocol of Security Arrangements (25 September 2003); (3) The Protocol of Wealth Sharing (7 January 2004); (4) The Protocol of Power-Sharing (26 May 2004); (5) The Protocol of the Resolution of Conflict in Southern Kordofan/Nuba Mountains and the Blue Nile States (26 May 2004); (6) The Protocol on the Resolution of Conflict in Abyei (26 May 2004). Source: United Nations Mission in Sudan n.d., The background of Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement, viewed 23 January 2016, https://unmis.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=515

  3. 3.

    Poggo, SS 2009, The first Sudanese civil war: Africans, Arabs, and Israelis in Southern Sudan, 1955–1972, Palgrave Macmillan, London, p. 1.

  4. 4.

    Large, D 2011, ‘Southern Sudan and China: Enemies into friends?’ in D Large & LA Patey (eds.), Sudan looks east: China, India and the politics of Asian alternatives, James Currey, New York, p. 159.

  5. 5.

    Ogunsanwo, A 1974, China’s policy in Africa: 1958–71, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, p. 72.

  6. 6.

    Larkin, BD 1973, China and Africa, 1949–1970: The foreign policy of the People’s Republic of China, University of California Press, California, p. 178.

  7. 7.

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  8. 8.

    Larkin, BD 1973, China and Africa, 1949–1970: The foreign policy of the People’s Republic of China, University of California Press, California, p. 180.

  9. 9.

    Ogunsanwo, A 1974, China’s policy in Africa: 1958–71, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 236–237.

  10. 10.

    Biel, MR 2003, ‘The civil war in Southern Sudan and its effect on youth and children’, Social Work & Society, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 119–127.

  11. 11.

    Goodman, PS 2004, ‘China invests heavily in Sudan’s oil industry; Beijing supplies arms used on villagers,’ Washington Post, 23 December, viewed 7 February 2016, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A21143-2004Dec22.html

  12. 12.

    Kline, J 2010, Ethics for international business: Decision-making in a global political economy, Routledge, London, p. 64.

  13. 13.

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  14. 14.

    Human Rights First 2008, Investing in tragedy: China’s money, arms, and politics in Sudan, viewed 18 February 2016, https://www.ciaonet.org/attachments/14585/uploads

  15. 15.

    Consulate-General of China in San Francisco 2008, Foreign ministry spokesperson Qin Gang’s remarks on the accusation of China as the largest light weapons provider to Sudan, viewed 10 February 2016, http://www.chinaconsulatesf.org/eng/xw/t416292.htm

  16. 16.

    Large, D 2007, ‘Arms, oil and Darfur: The evolution of relations between China and Sudan’, Small Arms Survey, no. 7, p. 4.

  17. 17.

    Goodman, P.S 2004, ‘China invests heavily in Sudan’s oil industry; Beijing supplies arms used on villagers,’ Washington Post, 23 December, viewed 7 February 2016, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A21143-2004Dec22.html

  18. 18.

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  19. 19.

    Anthony, R & Jiang, H 2014, ‘Forum: Security and engagement: the case of China and South Sudan’, African East-Asian Affairs, no. 4, p. 80.

  20. 20.

    ‘SPLM gives assurances on Chinese oil investments in South Sudan’ 2010, Sudan Tribune, 15 October, viewed 11 February 2016, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article36612

  21. 21.

    ‘Text: Garang’s speech at the signing ceremony of S. Sudan peace deal’ 2005, Sudan Tribune, 10 January, viewed 11 February 2016, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article7476; Idris, A 2013, Identity, citizenship, and violence in two Sudans: Reimagining a common future, Palgrave Macmillan, London, p. 98; Malwal, B 2015, Sudan and South Sudan: From one to two, Palgrave Macmillan, London, p.xi.

  22. 22.

    United Nations Security Council 2005, Sudan Peace Agreement signed 9 January 2005 historic opportunity, Security Council told, UN Security Council Press Release, 8 February, viewed 11 February 2016, http://www.un.org/press/en/2005/sc8306.doc.htm

  23. 23.

    Garang, J 1992, ‘Speech by John Garang, 9 April 1985, following downfall of Nimeiri’, in M Khalid (ed.), The call for democracy in Sudan, Kegan Paul International, Cardiff, p. 137.

  24. 24.

    ‘Sudan expects China’s continued support’ 2007, Xinhua, 19 July, viewed 10 February 2016, http://www.china.org.cn/english/international/217629.htm

  25. 25.

    Patey, L 2014, The new kings of crude: China, India, and the global struggle for oil in Sudan and South Sudan, Hurst, London, p. 217.

  26. 26.

    Brosché, J 2008, ‘CPA – New Sudan, old Sudan or two Sudans? – A review of the implementation of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement’ in UJ Dahre (ed.), Post-conflict peace-building in the Horn of Africa, Lund University, Lund, p. 235.

  27. 27.

    Whalley, J 2011, China’s integration into the world economy, World Scientific, New Jersey, p. 235.

  28. 28.

    Kitissou, M, McGarrah, J & Kablan, PG 2010, ‘Ethics in foreign-policy making: US and China’s approach to the crisis in Darfur, Sudan’, in M Ndulo & M Grieco (eds.), Failed and failing states: The challenges to African reconstruction, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle, p. 48; ‘Chinese, Sudanese senior military leaders hold talks’ 2007, Xinhua, 5 April, viewed 12 February 2016, http://www.china.org.cn/english/international/206101.htm

  29. 29.

    ‘High ranking SPLM delegation visits China’ 2005, Sudan Tribune, 18 March, viewed 29 January 2016, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article8613

  30. 30.

    ‘President Hu invites Sudan’s Salva Kiir to visit China’ 2007, Sudan Tribune, 3 February, viewed 14 February 2016, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article20078

  31. 31.

    Consulate-General of the People’s Republic of China in San Francisco 2007, Sudanese First Vice President to visit China, 12 July, viewed 16 January 2016, http://www.chinaconsulatesf.org/eng/xw/t339574.htm

  32. 32.

    Large, D 2012, ‘Between the CPA and southern independence: China’s post-conflict engagement in Sudan’, South African Institute of International Affairs, Occasional Paper No. 115, p. 15.

  33. 33.

    People’s Republic of China Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2008, Special envoy of the Chinese government and Assistant Foreign Minister Zhai Jun visits Sudan successfully, 4 September, viewed 16 January 2016, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjdt_665385/wshd_665389/t511195.shtml

  34. 34.

    Embassy of China in South Sudan 2011, Sino-South Sudan relation opens a new chapter, bilateral cooperation benefits the two peoples, viewed 16 January 2016, http://ss.chineseembassy.org/eng/sbjw/t864347.htm

  35. 35.

    Boswell, A 2010, ‘China pledges to boost southern Sudan ties after secession vote’, Bloomberg, 14 October, 15 January 2016, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-10-14/china-pledges-to-boost-southern-sudan-ties-after-january-vote-on-secession

  36. 36.

    ‘SPLM gives assurances on Chinese oil investments in South Sudan’ 2010, Sudan Tribune, 15 October, viewed 13 February 2016, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article36612

  37. 37.

    Ibid.

  38. 38.

    According to a report by International Crisis Group, between September 2011 and May 2011, there were eight high-level bilateral exchanges between Beijing and CCP officials and SPLM leaders in the South Sudan government (see: International Crisis Group 2012, China’s new courtship in South Sudan, Africa Report No. 186, p. 6., viewed 30 May 2015, http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/africa/horn-of-africa/sudan/186-chinas-new-courtship-in-south-sudan.pdf).

  39. 39.

    Embassy of People’s Republic of China in South Sudan 2011, China recognizes independence of South Sudan, viewed 6 March 2015, http://ss.chineseembassy.org/eng/sbjw/t838441.htm

  40. 40.

    Embassy of People’s Republic of China in South Sudan 2012, Sino-Sudan political exchanges, 23 November, viewed 6 March 2015, http://ss.chineseembassy.org/eng/sbgx/zjjw/

  41. 41.

    China’s Foreign Ministry in Hong Kong 2011, Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi’s written interview with South Sudan press, 9 August, viewed 6 March 2015, http://www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/zgwjsw/t847127.htm

  42. 42.

    Shinn, DH & Eisenman, J 2012, China and Africa: A century of engagement, University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, p. 81.

  43. 43.

    ‘Senior CPC official hails China-Sudan relations’ 2009, Xinhua News Agency, 18 November, viewed 10 February 2016, http://en.people.cn/90001/90776/90883/6817075.html

  44. 44.

    ‘SPLM officials , finance chiefs in China’ 2012, SPLM Today, 6 September, viewed 11 February 2016, http://www.splmtoday.com/index.php/news-mainmenu-2/691-splm-officials-finance-chiefs-in-china

  45. 45.

    ‘SPLM delegation visits China’ 2011, SPLM Today, 20 April, viewed 11 February 2016, http://phpmyadmin.splmtoday.com/index.php/component/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=606:splm-delegation-visits-china&catid=1:latest&Itemid=2

  46. 46.

    ‘China, South Sudan vow to advance bilateral ties’ 2011, Xinhua, 20 October, viewed 11 February 2016, http://ss.chineseembassy.org/eng/sbjw/t869369.htm

  47. 47.

    ‘CPC to forge stronger bonds with South Sudan’s ruling party, says CPC senior leader’, Xinhua 21 October, viewed 11 February 2016http://ss.chineseembassy.org/eng/sbjw/t869768.htm

  48. 48.

    ‘SPLM officials , finance chiefs in China’ 2012, SPLM Today, 6 September, viewed 11 February 2016, http://www.splmtoday.com/index.php/news-mainmenu-2/691-splm-officials-finance-chiefs-in-china

  49. 49.

    ‘SPLM leaders complete study tour of China’ 2012, SPLM Today, 12 December, viewed 8 February 2016, http://www.splmtoday.com/index.php/news-mainmenu-2/700-splm-leaders-complete-study-tour-of-china

  50. 50.

    Raghavan, S 2012, ‘South Sudan’s president visits China during crisis’, The Washington Post, 24 April, viewed 1 March 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/south-sudans-president-visits-china-during-crisis/2012/04/24/gIQAowXKfT_story.html

  51. 51.

    China’s Foreign Ministry in Hong Kong 2011, Foreign Minister Yang Jiechi’s written interview with South Sudan press, 9 August, viewed 6 March 2015, http://www.fmcoprc.gov.hk/eng/zgwjsw/t847127.htm

  52. 52.

    Embassy of People’s Republic of China in South Sudan 2012, Sino-Sudan political exchanges, 23 November, viewed 6 March 2015, http://ss.chineseembassy.org/eng/sbgx/zjjw/

  53. 53.

    Raghavan, S 2012, ‘South Sudan’s president visits China during crisis’, The Washington Post, 24 April, viewed 1 March 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/africa/south-sudans-president-visits-china-during-crisis/2012/04/24/gIQAowXKfT_story.html

  54. 54.

    Saiget, R 2012, ‘S. Sudanese President Kiir accuses Khartoum gov’t of declaring ‘war”, The China Post, 25 April, viewed 19 November 2014, http://www.chinapost.com.tw/international/africa/2012/04/25/338993/S-Sudanese.htm

  55. 55.

    The suspended SPLM leaders included the following: SPLM secretary general Pagan Amum Okech and several former ministers, including Oyay Deng Ajak (investment); Gier Choung Aloung (internal affairs); Majak D’Agoot (deputy defence); John Luk Jok (justice); Cirino Hiteng (culture); Deng Alor Koul (foreign affairs); Madut Biar (telecommunications) and Kosti Manibe (finance); as well as the former ambassador to the United States Ezekiel Lol Gatkuoth and former Lakes state Governor Chol Tong Mayay.

  56. 56.

    Energy Information Administration 2014, Country analysis brief: Sudan and South Sudan, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 3 September, viewed 6 September 2014, https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includes/countries_long/Sudan_and_South_Sudan/sudan.pdf

  57. 57.

    Wu, Y 2014, ‘China’s oil fears over South Sudan fighting’, BBC Chinese, 8 January, viewed 8 January 2014, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25654155

  58. 58.

    Energy Information Administration 2014, Country analysis brief: Sudan and South Sudan, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 3 September, viewed 6 September 2014, https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includes/countries_long/Sudan_and_South_Sudan/sudan.pdf

  59. 59.

    Wang, X & Lu, X 2014, ‘Investment in South Sudan: The opportunity and the challenge coexist’, People’s Daily, April 16, viewed 24 July 2015, http://en.people.cn/102774/8599301.html; Embassy of People’s Republic of China in the Republic of Zimbabwe 2011, China announces diplomatic ties with South Sudan, 9 July, viewed 6 March 2015, http://www.chinaembassy.org.zw/eng/xwdt/t841090.htm

  60. 60.

    ‘97 Chinese workers evacuated from South Sudan to Khartoum’ 2013, People Daily, 25 December, viewed 27 December 2013, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90883/8495532.html

  61. 61.

    ‘S. Sudan provides assurances for safety of Chinese oil workers’ 2015, Sudan Tribune, 15 January, viewed 16 January 2015, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article53658

  62. 62.

    Rose, A & Chen, A 2013, ‘China to evacuate South Sudan oil workers to capital’, Reuters, December 20, viewed 20 December 2013, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2013/12/20/southsudan-unrest-china-idUKL3N0JZ24K20131220

  63. 63.

    Patey, L 2014, ‘South Sudan: fighting could cripple oil industry for decades’, Sudan Tribune, 28 January, viewed 29 January 2014, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article49741

  64. 64.

    FOCAC 2012, ‘The Fifth Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Beijing Action Plan (2013–2015)’, FOCAC, 23 July, viewed 10 October 2013, http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t954620.htm

  65. 65.

    ‘Chinese envoy urges protection of citizens & firms in S. Sudan’ 2014, CCTV, 1 March, viewed 1 March 2014, http://english.cntv.cn/program/newsupdate/20140103/100797.shtml

  66. 66.

    Interview, IGAD Conflict Analyst, 28 August 2015. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

  67. 67.

    ‘Salva Kiir: ‘We lost control over Unity State and Jonglei’ 2013, Radio Tamazuj (Juba), December 23, viewed 24 December 2013, https://radiotamazuj.org/en/article/salva-kiir-%E2%80%98we-lost-control-over-unity-state-and-jonglei%E2%80%99

  68. 68.

    ‘Ex-VP Machar says forces will divert oil revenues from Juba’ 2013, Sudan Tribune, 23 December, viewed 24 December 2013, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article49298

  69. 69.

    Patey, L 2014, ‘South Sudan: fighting could cripple oil industry for decades’, Sudan Tribune, 28 January, viewed 29 January 2014, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article49741

  70. 70.

    ‘China sends envoy to South Sudan to push peace talks’ 2013, Voice of America, 27 December, viewed 28 December 2013, http://www.voanews.com/content/reu-china-sends-envoy-south-sudan-push-peace-talks/1818388.html

  71. 71.

    Martina, M 2014, ‘South Sudan marks new foreign policy chapter for China: Official’, Reuters, 11 February, viewed 12 February 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-southsudan-idUSBREA1A0HO20140211

  72. 72.

    Walker, B 2012, ‘China’s uncomfortable diplomacy keeps South Sudan’s oil flowing’, China Dialogue, November 26, viewed 25 May 2015, https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/5378-China-s-uncomfortable-diplomacy-keeps-South-Sudan-s-oil-flowing

  73. 73.

    Wu, Y 2014, ‘China’s oil fears over South Sudan fighting’, BBC Chinese, 8 January, viewed 8 January 2014, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-25654155

  74. 74.

    FOCAC 2012, ‘The Fifth Ministerial Conference of the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Beijing Action Plan (2013–2015)’, FOCAC, 23 July, viewed 10 October 2013, http://www.focac.org/eng/zxxx/t954620.htm

  75. 75.

    People’s Republic of China Ministry of Foreign Affairs 2014, Wang Yi: China and South Sudan enjoy relations of mutual trust, mutual support and mutual cooperation, 3 July, viewed 3 July 2014, http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/xybfs_663590/xwlb_663592/t1171504.shtml

  76. 76.

    ‘China-supported consultations reactivate peace process in S.Sudan’ 2015, China Daily, 13 January, viewed 14 January 2015, http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2015-01/13/content_19304551_2.htm

  77. 77.

    Ibid.

  78. 78.

    ‘China-supported consultations in Khartoum reactivate peace process in South Sudan’, Xinhua, 13 January, viewed 13 January 2015, http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2015-01/13/c_133915537.htm

  79. 79.

    ‘South Sudan army says oil fields under full protection’ 2015, Sudan Tribune, January 18, viewed 19 January 2015, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article53675

  80. 80.

    S. Sudan provides assurances for safety of Chinese oil workers’ 2015, Sudan Tribune, 15 January, viewed 16 January 2015, http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article53658

  81. 81.

    Interview with AU diplomat in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

  82. 82.

    People’s Republic of China Ministry of Commerce 2014, Minister Gao Hucheng holds telephone talks with South Sudan’s Minister of Foreign Affairs and International Cooperation on bilateral ties and cooperation, 6 April, viewed 9 April 2014, http://english.mofcom.gov.cn/article/newsrelease/significantnews/201404/20140400553492.shtml

  83. 83.

    Feng, B 2014, ‘China to send its first infantry troops to U.N. Mission in South Sudan’, New York Times, December 23, viewed 6 January 2015, http://sinosphere.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/12/23/china-to-send-its-first-infantry-troops-to-u-n-mission-in-south-sudan/?_r=0

  84. 84.

    ‘Chinese envoy urges protection of citizens & firms in S. Sudan’ 2014, CCTV, 1 March, viewed 1 March 2014, http://english.cntv.cn/program/newsupdate/20140103/100797.shtml

  85. 85.

    ‘China’s motive in South Sudan?’ 2015, Al Jazeera, January 23, viewed 23 January 2015, http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/insidestory/2015/01/china-motive-south-sudan-201511319545502114.html

  86. 86.

    ‘Visit celebrates ‘priceless’ friendship’ 2015, China Daily, February 16, viewed 16 February 2015, http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/m/touchroad/2015-01/22/content_19379710.htm

  87. 87.

    Porter, T 2014, ‘Oil behind China’s UN Peacekeeping troop deployment to South Sudan’, International Business Times, 23 December, viewed 23 December 2014, http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/oil-behind-chinas-un-peacekeeping-troop-deployment-south-sudan-1480770

  88. 88.

    Jorgic, D 2014, ‘China takes more assertive line in South Sudan diplomacy’, Reuters, 5 June, viewed 5 June 2014, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/06/05/uk-southsudan-china-insight-idUKKBN0EG01Z20140605

  89. 89.

    Gridneff, I 2014, ‘China halts arms sale to South Sudan after NORINCO shipment’, Bloomberg, 30 September, viewed 16 October 2015, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-09-29/china-halts-weapons-sales-to-south-sudan-after-norinco-shipment

  90. 90.

    ‘China adopts a more hands-on approach to the conflict in South Sudan’ 2014, South China Morning Post, 10 June, viewed 16 October 2015, http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1528859/china-adopts-more-hands-approach-conflict-south-sudan

  91. 91.

    Ibid.

  92. 92.

    IGAD-PLUS members include the African Union (AU), United Nations (UN), European Union (EU), the Troika (the United States, the UK and Norway), China and the IGAD Partners Forum (IPF). The IPF includes major IGAD donors—Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Greece, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK, the United States, European Commission (EC), International Organisation for Migration (IOM), United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the World Bank.

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  1. Department of World Cultures, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

    Obert Hodzi

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Hodzi, O. (2019). South Sudan. In: The End of China’s Non-Intervention Policy in Africa. Critical Studies of the Asia-Pacific. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97349-4_6

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