Plebeian Presence in the Age of Gunpowder

Nayar, Sheila J.

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-96899-5_5

Sheila J. Nayar²

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Abstract

Analyzed at length in this chapter are the stage plays of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras, as they prove strikingly keen on countenancing and vivifying contemporary soldiering, even if often in a sardonic vein. Just as vital to Chap. 5 is the manner by which gunpowder was theatrically employed as special effects. Accordingly, Nayar pays ethnographic tribute to the aural and pyrotechnic dimensions of Tudor and Stuart drama, which often, in contemporary critical circles, get overlooked. Plays addressed include those of Christopher Marlowe, William Shakespeare, and Ben Jonson, as well as lesser-known works that demonstrate how the stage often functioned as a means of access to powder-related current affairs.

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Notes

1.
Andy Wood, “‘Poore men woll speke one daye’: Plebeian Language of Deference and Defiance in England, c. 1520–1640,” in The Politics of the Excluded, c. 1500–1850, ed. Tim Harris (New York: Palgrave, 2001), 82.
2.
Jennifer Low, Manhood and the Duel: Masculinity in Early Modern Drama and Culture (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 98.
3.
Bert S. Hall, Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 4.
4.
Ibid.
5.
Quoted in Wood, “‘Poore,’” 75. These complainants were describing rioters, admittedly (Ibid.).
6.
Hall, Weapons, 148.
7.
Miguel de Cervantes, Don Quixote, trans. Edith Grossman (New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 2003), 330–331.
8.
Ibid., 331.
9.
Ibid., 332.
10.
Diane Bornstein, Mirrors of Courtesy (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1975), 118.
11.
Michel de Montaigne, Florio’s Translation of Montaigne’s Essays, Book 2 [1603], unnumbered, Renascence Editions.
12.
Quoted in Hale, War and Society in Renaissance Europe 1450–1620 (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1998), 84.
13.
Barnabe Riche, Allarme to England foreshewing what perilles are procured, where the people liue without regarde of maritall lawe. … (London: By Henrie Middleton, for C. B[arker] Perused and allowed, 1578), unnumbered, Early English Books Online.
14.
Hale, War, 86.
15.
Hall, Weapons, 234.
16.
Adam Max Cohen, Technology and the Early Modern Self (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), 123.
17.
Wood, “‘Poore,’” 88. England’s population had doubled in Shakespeare’s time, conceivably fueling mainstream contempt for the lower classes (Kai Wiegandt, Crowd and Rumour in Shakespeare [Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2012], 180).
18.
C.P. Brand, “The Poetry of War in the Italian Renaissance,” in War, Literature and the Arts in Sixteenth-Century Europe, eds. J.R. Mulryne and Margaret Shewring (New York: St. Martin’s P, 1989), 89–90.
19.
J.R. Hale, “Epilogue: Experience and Artifice,” in War, Literature and the Arts in Sixteenth-Century Europe, eds. J.R. Mulryne and Margaret Shewring (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989), 193.
20.
John Ferne’s Blazon of Gentrie (1586) would declare nobles and commoners “practically two different races” (48).
21.
Patricia A. Cahill, Unto the Breach: Martial Formations, Historical Trauma, and the Early Modern Stage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 2.
22.
Yumiko Yamada, Ben Jonson and Cervantes: Tilting against Chivalric Romances (Tokyo: Maruzen, 2000), 118–119.
23.
Aristocrat poets who engaged with gunpowder typically had undergone personal experience of war. George Gascoigne (c. 1535–1577) authored Dulce Bellum Inexpertis (1575), which, he acknowledged, “treateth of rough matters” (George Gascoigne, The Complete Works of George Gascoigne [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012], 140). (It might have been provender for Marlowe’s Tamburlaine, given its morbid mantra of “I say that warre is even the scourge of God” [Ibid., 143]). John Donne had served as an elite connected volunteer (Adam N. McKeown, English Mercuries: Soldier Poets in the Age of Shakespeare [Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 2009], 125), and his poetry often wrestles with the material properties of legitimate warfare. Even his prose meditations can harness gunpowder rhetoric, both to materialize human affliction and to purge a resultant ontological roiling.
24.
Wood, “‘Poore,’” 73.
25.
Stephen Gosson, Playes confuted in fiue actions prouing that they are not to be suffred in a Christian common weale, by the waye both the cauils of Thomas Lodge… (London: Imprinted for Thomas Gosson… [1582]), Early English Books Online.
26.
Ronald S. Crane, The Vogue of Medieval Chivalric Romance During the English Renaissance (Menasha, WI: George Banta Publishing Company, 1919), 25–26.
27.
Ibid., 23.
28.
Ibid., 28. The last is cited in Samuel Rowlands, The Melancholie knight. By S.R. (London: By R.B[lower]…, 1615), Early English Books Online.
29.
Wood, “‘Poore,’” 73.
30.
Alex Davis, Chivalry and Romance in the English Renaissance (Rochester, NY: D.S. Brewer, 2003), 46.
31.
Quoted in Davis, Chivalry, 49.
32.
Joseph H. Marshburn and Alan R. Velie, introduction to Blood and Knavery: A Collection of English Renaissance Pamphlets and Ballads of Crime and Sin (Teaneck, NJ: Farleigh Dickinson University Press, 1973), 13.
33.
Broadside Ballads from the Pepys Collection: A Selection of Texts, Approaches, and Recordings, ed. Patricia Fumerton (Tempe: AZ: ACMR, 2012), 88–89.
34.
Ibid., 94.
35.
Ibid., 148.
36.
Ibid., 146.
37.
Ibid.
38.
Ibid., 147–150, 177, 217. These are, respectively, Monmouth Routed And Taken Prisoner; Protestant Observator; and The Weeping Lady. See also the ballad poems in Thomas Churchyard’s The First Part of Churchyard’s Chips (1575), which paint with bold vigor the shot-laden nature of contemporary battle.
39.
Francis Oscar Mann, introduction to The Works of Thomas Deloney, ed. Francis Oscar Mann (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912), xxiii.
40.
Marshburn and Velie, introduction to Blood and Knavery, 13.
41.
Ibid.
42.
Broadside Ballads, 150.
43.
Thomas Deloney, The Works of Thomas Deloney, ed. Francis Oscar Mann (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1912), 23.
44.
Ibid., 26.
45.
Ibid., 169.
46.
Ibid., 368, 475.
47.
The Common Touch: Popular Literature from the Elizabethans to the Restoration, Volume I, eds. Paul A. and Adrian Roscoe. (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014), 222.
48.
Report of the Trvth of the fight about the Iles of Azores… (London: Printed for William Ponsobie [1591]), in The Last Fight of “The Revenge” at Sea, ed. Edward Arber (Westminster: A. Constable and Company, Ltd., 1901), 15.
49.
Ibid., 20–21.
50.
Gervase Markham, The Most Honorable Tragedie of Sir Richard Grinvile, Knight [1595] (London, Printed by I. Roberts), reprint, 40.
51.
Ibid., 66.
52.
J.R. Hale, Artists and Warfare in the Renaissance (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), 152.
53.
Markham, Most Honorable, 65.
54.
Ibid., 66, 69–76.
55.
Ibid., 67.
56.
Ibid., 70.
57.
Ibid., 71.
58.
Ibid., 74.
59.
Ibid., 75.
60.
Sarah Kember, Virtual Anxiety: Photography, New Technologies and Subjectivity (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), 7.
61.
Markham, Most Honorable, 73.
62.
Ibid., 84.
63.
Ibid., 87.
64.
William Goddard, A mastif vvhelp and other ruff-island-lik currs fetcht from amongst the Antipedes… (Dordrecht: By George Waters, 1616?), Satire 42, Early English Books Online.
65.
John Taylor, The Praise of Hemp-Seed… (London: [By E. Allde] for Henry Gosson, and are to be sold [by E. Wright?] at Christ-Church gate, 1623), 60, Early English Books Online.
66.
William Webbe, A discourse of English poetrie… (London: By Iohn Charlewood for Robert Walley, 1586), 23, Early English Books Online.
67.
Ibid., 34–35.
68.
Milton unfortunately postdates the parameters of this project historically. For more on his poetic deployment of gunpowder technology, however, see Anne James, Poets, Players, and Preachers: Remembering the Gunpowder Plot in Seventeenth-Century England (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2016); and Sheila J. Nayar, “Arms or the Man II: Epic, Romance, and Ordnance in Seventeenth-Century England,” Studies in Philology 115, no. 2 (2018).
69.
Gary Wills, Witches and Jesuits: Shakespeare’s Macbeth (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 19.
70.
Ibid. Eager to bring England’s war with Spain to an end upon taking the throne, James offloaded the royal mills’ surplus on the international market. Entirely feasible, thus, is that some of it made its way back to James’ seat—in the form of the lasts intended to blow up Parliament (David Cressy, Saltpeter: The Mother of Gunpowder [Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013], 77).
71.
Richard F. Hardin, “Early Poetry of the Gunpowder Plot: Myth in the Making,” English Literary Renaissance 22, no. 1 (December 1992): 75.
72.
Ibid.
73.
Paul Wake, “Plotting as Subversion: Narrative and the Gunpowder Plot,” Journal of Narrative Theory 38, no. 3 (2008): 296, 304.
74.
Quoted in James Travers, Gunpowder: The Players behind the Plot (Kew, Richmond, Surrey: The National Archives, 2005), 103.
75.
Samuel Daniel, The Civil Wars, ed. Laurence Michel (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958), 9.
76.
Ibid., 9, 213–214.
77.
Ibid., 214.
78.
Ibid., 67.
79.
Thomas Dekker, The Artillery Garden… (Unidentified place of publication, [1616]), unnumbered, ProQuest.
80.
See Russell A. Fraser and Norman Rabkin, eds., Drama of the English Renaissance I: The Tudor Period (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1976), 481.
81.
Ros King, “‘The Discipline of War’: Elizabethan War Manuals and Shakespeare’s Tragicomic Vision,” in Shakespeare and War, eds. Ros King and Paul J.C.M. Franssen (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 15.
82.
Chris Powell, “A Phenomenological Analysis of Humour in Society,” in Humour in Society: Resistance and Control, eds. Chris Powell and George E.C. Paton (New York: Macmillan Press, 1988), 103.
83.
Arden of Faversham [1592], in Elizabethan Drama: Eight Plays, eds. John Gassner and William Green (New York: Applause Theatre Book Publishers, 1990), 21.
84.
Ibid., 21–22.
85.
Hale, War, 88.
86.
John Pound, Poverty and Vagrancy in Tudor England (New York: Longman, 1986), 2.
87.
Arden, 41.
88.
Pound, Poverty, 2–3.
89.
Arden, 41.
90.
Ibid., 45.
91.
McKeown, English, 65. This he expresses in Churchyard’s Chips (1575).
92.
Document in Pound, Poverty, 89.
93.
Nate Probasco, “The Role of Commoners and Print in Elizabethan England’s Acceptance of Firearms,” The Journal of Military History 76 (April 2012): 344–345.
94.
Ibid., 345.
95.
The same applies to the 1590s history play, Edward III, sometimes attributed to Shakespeare.
96.
Andrew Hadfield, Literature, Travel, and Colonial Writing in the English Renaissance, 1545–1625 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), 121.
97.
Probasco, “Role,” 366.
98.
Ibid., 370.
99.
J.R. Hale, The Art of War and Renaissance England (Washington, DC: Folger Shakespeare Library, 1961), 4.
100.
Thomas Churchyard, Churchyards Challenge (London: Printed by Iohn Wolfe, 1593), 85, Early English Books Online.
101.
Nick de Somogyi, Shakespeare’s Theatre of War (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 1998), 162.
102.
William Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, in The Complete Works of William Shakespeare, ed. David Bevington (Boston: Pearson, 2014), 845.
103.
Somogyi, Shakespeare’s, 162.
104.
Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, 846.
105.
Ibid.
106.
Ibid., 165.
107.
William Shakespeare, Love’s Labor’s Lost, in The Complete Works, 37. The words appear at I.i.177.
108.
William Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV, in The Complete Works, 845. All annotations are Bevington’s.
109.
Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, 816.
110.
Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV, 853.
111.
Ibid.
112.
Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, 816.
113.
Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV, 853.
114.
Cahill, Unto, 86.
115.
Ibid. Some comedy might have erupted, too, had the men been choreographed as passing between them a single gun.
116.
Cahill, Unto, 91.
117.
Thomas Kullmann, “Shakespeare and Peace.” Shakespeare and War, eds. Ros King and Paul J.C.M. Franssen (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008), 57.
118.
Probasco, “Role,” 367.
119.
Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV, 861.
120.
Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, 792.
121.
Somogyi, Shakespeare’s, 161.
122.
Shakespeare, 1 Henry IV, 798.
123.
Ibid., 824.
124.
William Shakespeare, Henry V, in The Complete Works, 891.
125.
Ibid.
126.
Ibid.
127.
Cahill, Unto, 183.
128.
Shakespeare may have made singular use of William Garrard’s The Art of Warre (King, “Discipline” 16).
129.
Shakespeare, Henry V, 892.
130.
Ibid., 914.
131.
Hale, “Epilogue,” 194.
132.
A Larum for London; or The Siege of Antwerp [1602] (London: Tudor Facsimile Texts, 1912), unnumbered.
133.
Hale, Art, 26.
134.
Ibid., 56.
135.
Ibid.
136.
Cahill, Unto, 190.
137.
Ibid.
138.
Ibid., 170.
139.
Ibid.
140.
Ibid., 181.
141.
Ibid., 194.
142.
McKeown, English, 95.
143.
Ibid., 96–97.
144.
William Camden, Annales or, the History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princesse Elizabeth, Late Queen of England… (London: Printed by Thomas Harper, for Benjamin Fisher… [1635]), 560, books.google.com
145.
Ben Jonson, Epicœne; or The Silent Woman, in The Works of Ben Jonson, Volume III, ed. W. Gifford (London: Bickers and Son, 1875), 410.
146.
Thomas Middleton and William Rowley, A Fair Quarrel, ed. R.V. Holdsworth (London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1974), 20.
147.
Ibid.
148.
Quoted in Cressy, Saltpeter, 68.
149.
Ibid., 69.
150.
Ibid., 72.
151.
Thomas Nashe, An Almond for a Parrot; being a reply to Martin Mar-prelate. Re-printed from the Black letter (London: John Petheram, 1846), 24, HathiTrust Digital Library.
152.
Middleton and Rowley, Fair, 21.
153.
R.V. Holdsworth, ed. A Fair Quarrel, by Thomas Middleton and William Rowley (London: Ernest Benn Limited, 1974), 98 n.
154.
Ibid., 2. Middleton had already written an anti-dueling pamphlet, as had also King James (Ibid., 59 n. 125).
155.
Daniel Gates, “The Roaring Boy: Contested Masculinity on the Early Modern Stage,” The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association 46, no. 1 (2013): 43. Roaring boys admittedly came from a variety of social classes (Ibid).
156.
Ibid. While taken up by roaring boys, dueling nevertheless “remained aristocratic in the popular mind” (Low, Manhood, 6).
157.
Middleton and Rowley, Fair, 51.
158.
Ibid., 52.
159.
Holdsworth, ed., Fair, 52 n. 207.
160.
John Melton’s Astrologaster (1620) correspondingly declares, “The Fierie Deuill, is your Roaring Boy, … he is a swearing Rascall, that with the hot Oathes he spues out from the Canon of his mouth, is able to burne” (John Melton, Astrologaster, or The Figvre-Caster [Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California, 1975], 72).
161.
Middleton and Rowley, Fair, 101.
162.
This Gallant Caualiero Dicke Bovvyer: Newly Acted (London: Printed by Simon Stafford for Nathaniel Butter… 1605), unnumbered, Early English Books Online; and Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher, The Knight of the Burning Pestle [1613], in Elizabethan and Stuart Plays, eds . Charles Read Baskervill, Virgil B. Heltzel and Arthur H. Nethercot (New York: Henry Hold and Company, 1949).
163.
Cahill, Unto, 147.
164.
Ibid.
165.
Apparently he only fears acquiring it in France.
166.
Cahill, Unto, 155. Cahill analyzes these Elizabethan war dramas at length, exploring particularly the means by which audiences had “to reckon with the deeply unsettling sights and sounds of early modern warfare” (Ibid., 3).
167.
Also responsible for the play’s failure was its satirizing of the city’s trained bands, as these were widely supported by Londoners (Charles Carlton, Going to the Wars: The Experience of the British Civil Wars, 1638–1651 [London: Routledge, 1992], 23).
168.
Beaumont and Fletcher, Knight, 1141.
169.
Ibid.
170.
Ibid., 1142.
171.
Ibid.
172.
Thomas Kyd, The Spanish Tragedy [1592], ed. J.R. Mulryne (London: New Methuen Drama, 2009), 59.
173.
William Shakespeare, The Famous History of the Life of King Henry the Eighth, in The Complete Works, 933.
174.
Ben Jonson, An Execration upon Vulcan, in Ben Jonson and the Cavalier Poets, ed. Hugh Maclean (New York: W.W. Norton 7 Company, 1974), 70–71.
175.
Quoted in David Bevington, ed., The Complete Works, 919.
176.
Shakespeare, Famous History, 962–963.
177.
Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1966), 237.
178.
John Babington , Pyrotechnia or, A discourse of artificiall fire-works in which the true grounds of that art are plainly and perspicuously laid downe… (London: Printed by Thomas Harper, for Ralph Mab, MDCXXV [1635]), unnumbered, Schoenberg Center for Electronic Text and Image.
179.
Jessica Wolfe, Humanism, Machinery, and Renaissance Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 237.
180.
Somogyi, Shakespeare’s, 125.
181.
Bruce R. Smith, The Acoustic World of Early Modern England: Attending to the O-Factor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999), 49.
182.
Michael Murrin, History and Warfare in Renaissance Epic. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994), 139.
183.
Yamada, Ben, 32.
184.
Thomas Healy, “Marlowe’s Biography,” in Christopher Marlowe in Context, eds. Emily C. Bartels and Emma Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 339.
185.
Christopher Marlowe, 1 & 2 Tamburlaine, in The Complete Plays, ed. J.B. Steane (Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1969).
186.
Marlowe, 2 Tamburlaine, 207.
187.
Marlowe, 1 Tamburlaine, 124.
188.
Marlowe, 2 Tamburlaine, 248.
189.
Patricia A. Cahill, “Marlowe, Death-Worlds, and Warfare,” in Christopher Marlowe in Context, eds. Emily C. Bartels and Emma Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 171.
190.
Marlowe, 2 Tamburlaine, 245.
191.
Cahill, Unto, 48.
192.
Marlowe, 2 Tamburlaine, 218.
193.
Cahill, “Marlowe,” 172.
194.
Ibid.
195.
Somogyi, Shakespeare’s, 72. Somogyi’s latter point pulls from military historian Michael Howard.
196.
Marlowe, 2 Tamburlaine, 211.
197.
Melton, Astrolagaster, 31.
198.
Holger Schott Syme, “Marlowe in His Moment,” in Christopher Marlowe in Context, eds. Emily C. Bartels and Emma Smith (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 283.
199.
Ibid.
200.
See Somogyi, Shakespeare’s, 169.
201.
Jonathan Sawday, Engines of the Imagination: Renaissance Culture and the Rise of the Machine (London: Routledge, 2007), 304.
202.
Ibid., 305.
203.
Somogyi, Shakespeare’s, 161.
204.
McKeown, English, 162.
205.
Ben Jonson, Every Man in His Humour, in Five Plays, ed. G.A. Wilkes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 7.
206.
McKeown, English, 145.
207.
Jonson, Every Man in His Humour, 35.
208.
Ibid., 25. Gunpowder references also pepper Jonson’s Bartholomew Fair (V.i.7-12) and The Alchemist, where Subtle’s complexion is described as “Stuck full of black and melancholic worms, / Like powder-corns, at the artillery yard” (I.i.30-31).
209.
Barnabe Barnes, The Devil’s Charter, ed. Nick de Somogyi (New York: Theatre Arts Books/Routledge, 1999).
210.
Quoted in Somogyi, ed., The Devil’s Charter, by Barnabe Barnes (New York: Theatre Arts Books/Routledge, 1999), vii.
211.
Ibid.
212.
Barnes, Devil’s, 30–31.
213.
Wills, Witches, 25.
214.
Barnes, Devil’s, 47.
215.
Ibid., 77.
216.
Ibid., 81.
217.
Ibid., 91.
218.
Hale, Art, 18.
219.
Cahill, Unto, 11.
220.
Sawday, Engines, 104.
221.
Cahill, Unto, 26.
222.
Thomas F. Arnold, The Renaissance at War (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2006), 106.
223.
Ibid.
224.
Of course, soldiers were also participating in that abstracting, via loading operations and the computing of powder charge (John Francis Guilmartin, Jr., Gunpowder & Galleys: Changing Technology & Mediterranean Warfare at Sea in the 16th Century [Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2003], 173–174).
225.
William Bourne, The arte of shooting in great ordnaunce… [1587], (London: [By Thomas Dawson] for Thomas Woodcocke]), Early English Books Online.
226.
Hale, Art, 1.
227.
Hall, Weapons, 162.
228.
Mark Charles Fissel, English Warfare 1511–1642 (London: Routledge, 2001), 189.
229.
Hale, Art, 1.
230.
Arnold, Renaissance, 91.
231.
Francis Bacon, The New Organon [1620] and Related Writings, ed. Fulton H. Anderson (New York: Liberal Arts P, 1960), 249.
232.
Ibid., 250.
233.
Francis Bacon, The New Atlantis, a work unfinished written by the Right Honourable Francis, Lord Verulam, Viscount, St. Alban (London: s.n., 1658?), 31–32, Early English Books Online.
234.
Sawday, Engines, 215.
235.
Sawday tries to salvage Bacon by pulling from De Sapienta veterum (The Wisdom of the Ancients, 1609), where Bacon alleges that, long ago, Daedalus had converted admirable mechanical industry to ill use (Ibid.).
236.
Hale, Art, 14.
237.
Bacon, New Atlantis, 31.
238.
Hale, Art, 28.
239.
Quoted in Cahill, Unto, 33.
240.
Hale, Art, 20.
241.
Cahill, Unto, 33.
242.
Anthony Munday , Sidero-Thriambos. Or Steele and iron triumphing… (London: Printed by Nicholas Okes, dwelling in Foster-lane, 1618), unnumbered, Early English Books Online.
243.
Cahill, Unto, 34.
244.
Thomas Dekker Londons tempe, in The Dramatic Works of Thomas Dekker … Volume the Fourth (London: John Pearson York Street Covent Garden, 1873), 124.
245.
Bacon, New Organon, 109.

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Sheila J. Nayar

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Nayar, S.J. (2019). Plebeian Presence in the Age of Gunpowder. In: Renaissance Responses to Technological Change. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96899-5_5

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