Abstract
This chapter includes data on the medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of diabetes in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia. The total number of medicinal plants evaluated in the traditional medicine includes 340 taxa from 66 families and 185 genera in Turkey, 281 taxa from 76 families and 209 genera in Pakistan, and 76 taxa from 43 families and 65 genera in Malaysia. The following families are represented by the largest number of taxa: Rosaceae (49), Lamiaceae (48), Asteraceae (45), Apiaceae (20), and Fabaceae (17) in Turkey; Asteraceae (27), Fabaceae (25), Lamiaceae (14), Cucurbitaceae (12), Apocynaceae (12), and Moraceae (11) in Pakistan; and Fabaceae (8), Acanthaceae (5), Malvaceae and Phyllanthaceae (4 each), and Annonaceae and Zingiberaceae (3 each) in Malaysia. The genera with highest number of taxa are Prunus (11 taxa), Thymus (9 taxa), Quercus (7 taxa), and Juniperus, Hypericum, Crataegus, Pyrus, Rubus, and Salvia (6 taxa each) in Turkey; Ficus (9 taxa), Artemisia (6 taxa), Phyllanthus (5 taxa), and Ziziphus, Solanum, and Fagonia (4 taxa each) in Pakistan; and Phyllanthus (3 taxa) and Piper, Orthosiphon, Sindora, Allium, Annona, Terminalia, and Cnestis (2 taxa each) in Malaysia. The parts commonly used are leaves (107 taxa), aerial parts (104 taxa), fruits (77 taxa), and flowers (55 taxa) in Turkey; leaves (87 taxa), fruits (54 taxa), whole plants (51 taxa), and seeds (41 taxa) in Pakistan; and leaves (35 taxa), root (22 taxa), and fruits (12 taxa) in Malaysia. Common preparations evaluated are decoction (177 taxa), followed by infusion (138 taxa), fresh (65 taxa), and raw (25 taxa) in Turkey; extract (72 taxa), followed by powder (62 taxa), decoction (42 taxa), and boiled (41 taxa) in Pakistan; and decoction (32 taxa), followed by extract (21 taxa) and boiled (13 taxa) in Malaysia. The most commonly used taxa among these are Rosa canina, Teucrium polium, Urtica dioica, Juglans regia, Rubus sanctus, Viscum album ssp. album, Olea europaea, Morus nigra, Prunus dulcis, Thymbra spicata, and Prunus spinosa ssp. dasphylla in Turkey; Syzygium cumini, Allium sativum, Momordica charantia, Justicia adhatoda, Trigonella foenum-graecum, Ficus benghalensis, and Olea ferruginea in Pakistan; and Parkia speciosa, Andrographis paniculata, Averrhoa bilimbi, Momordica charantia, and Morinda citrifolia in Malaysia. A total of 42 taxa are common among Turkey and Pakistan, 11 between Pakistan and Malaysia, and 6 between Turkey and Malaysia. A comparison on the basis of MAPS reveals that in all three areas five taxa commonly used for the diabetes mellitus are Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Momordica charantia, Nigella sativa, and Punica granatum. The three countries seem to embody a great potential for an evaluation of MAPS and interesting folk medicine culture for many disease groups, especially diabetes mellitus.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Herbs Used for Diabetes Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Turkey
No | Family/taxa | Parts used | Preparation | Resourcesa |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Adoxaceae | ||||
1 | Sambucus ebulus | S | 124 | |
2 | Sambucus nigra | FL | DE | 1, 44 |
3 | Viburnum lantana | FR | DE | 10 |
4 | Viburnum opulus | FR | DE | 57 |
Amaranthaceae | ||||
5 | Beta vulgaris | L | EX | 150 |
Amaryllidaceae | ||||
6 | Allium akaka | B | EF | 17 |
7 | Allium ampeloprasum | B | DE, R | 43, 57 |
8 | Allium cepa | B | DE | 47, 72 |
9 | Allium sativum | B, FL, L | EF, R | 16, 43, 103, 104 |
Anacardiaceae | ||||
10 | Cotinus coggygria | L | DE | 1–3 |
11 | Pistacia terebinthus | L | DE | 4 |
12 | Pistacia vera | FR, S | EF | 147 |
13 | Rhus coriaria | L | CR, DE | 147 |
Apiaceae | ||||
14 | Ammi visnaga | L | IN | 133 |
15 | Apium graveolens | R | DE | 6 |
16 | Chaerophyllum bulbosum | RH | R | 19 |
17 | Daucus carota | AP | IN | 7 |
18 | Diplotaenia cachrydifolia | AP | DE | 142, 146 |
19 | Echinophora tenuifolia ssp. sibthorpiana | AP | DE | 8 |
20 | Eryngium campestre var. virens | ST | EF | 9 |
21 | Ferula caspica | AP | DE | 10 |
22 | Ferula orientalis | AP | C | 11 |
23 | Ferula rigidula | H | PU | 10 |
24 | Foeniculum vulgare | S | IN | 12, 13 |
25 | Heracleum persicum | WP | DE | 146 |
26 | Laser trilobum | FR | EF | 14 |
27 | Petroselinum crispum | AP, L, R | EF, IN | 15, 16 |
28 | Peucedanum longifolium | H | PI | 10 |
29 | Prangos ferulacea | SH, ST | BO, C | 42, 127 |
30 | Prangos pabularia | R | PI | 135 |
31 | Scandix pecten-veneris | AP | IN | 149 |
32 | Smyrnium connatum | RH | EF, C | 14 |
33 | Zosima absinthifolia | L | DE | 10 |
Araceae | ||||
34 | Arum rupicola var. virescens | L, R, T | BO, DE, DR, IN | 10, 17, 18, 19 |
Araliaceae | ||||
35 | Hedera helix | L, ST | DE | 3, 20–22 |
Asparagaceae | ||||
36 | Asparagus acutifolius | FR, R | DE, IN | 49 |
37 | Polygonatum multiflorum | L | IN | 12, 13 |
Aspleniaceae | ||||
38 | Asplenium scolopendrium | AP | AT, DE, IN | 151 |
39 | Ceterach officinarum | AP | DE | 23 |
Asteraceae | ||||
40 | Achillea arabica | FL | IN | 24 |
41 | Achillea millefolium | FL | IN | 24 |
42 | Achillea schischkinii | FL | DE | 25 |
43 | Achillea tenuifolia | L | IN | 10 |
44 | Anthemis cotula | AP | DE | 11 |
45 | Artemisia absinthium | AP, L, FL | DE, IN | 3, 5, 10, 11, 14, 26–29 |
46 | Artemisia annua | AP | CR | 114, 128 |
47 | Artemisia chamaemelifolia | FL, H | DE | 10 |
48 | Artemisia vulgaris | AP | DE | 22 |
49 | Carduus acanthoides | AP | DE | 3 |
50 | Carduus nutans ssp. leiophyllus | AP | DE | 3 |
51 | Carduus pycnocephalus | AP | EF | 9 |
52 | Centaurea benedicta | AP, L, ST | DE, IN | 12, 13, 32, 33 |
53 | Centaurea iberica | AP | DE, EF | 23, 30 |
54 | Centaurea virgata | FL | DE | 129 |
55 | Cichorium intybus | AP, SH | C, EF | 30, 31 |
56 | Cirsium hypoleucum | FL | R | 16 |
57 | Cirsium vulgare | R, ST | BO | 34 |
58 | Cota austriaca | AP | IN | 24 |
59 | Cota tinctoria | DE | 22 | |
60 | Cota wiedemanniana | BR | IN | 19 |
61 | Cynara scolymus | WP | EF | 35, 36 |
62 | Filago arvensis | AP | BO, MA | 43, 141 |
63 | Gundelia tournefortii | R, ST | DE | 10, 37 |
64 | Helianthus tuberosus | FR, ST, T | C, DE, EF | 4, 10, 11, 14, 16, 19, 38–41 |
65 | Helichrysum armenium | AP | IN | 146 |
66 | Helichrysum plicatum ssp. plicatum | AP, FL, H | DE, IN | 10, 19, 24, 26, 37, 146 |
67 | Helichrysum plicatum ssp. pseudoplicatum | AP | DE | 146 |
68 | Helichrysum rubicundum | FL | DE | 42 |
69 | Jurinea moschus ssp. pinnatisecta | H | DE | 10 |
70 | Matricaria chamomilla | FL | IN | 44 |
71 | Onopordum acanthium | AP | EF | 9 |
72 | Onopordum tauricum | AP, FL | DE, IN | 10, 25, 37 |
73 | Scolymus hispanicus | AP, R | DE | 6, 16 |
74 | Scorzonera cinerea | T | R | 19 |
75 | Scorzonera mollis ssp. szovitzii | T | R | 19 |
76 | Scorzonera semicana | L | EF, C | 32 |
77 | Tanacetum aureum | AP | IN | 142 |
78 | Tanacetum polycephalum ssp. argyrophyllum | AP | IN | 142 |
79 | Taraxacum campylodes | AP, FL, L, R, SH | DE, IN, R | 15, 47–49 |
80 | Taraxacum farinosum | L | DE | 14 |
81 | Taraxacum macrolepium | L, R | DE | 11 |
82 | Taraxacum stevenii | FL | BO | 46 |
83 | Tripleurospermum parviflorum | CA | DE | 136 |
84 | Xanthium strumarium | FR | 15 | |
Berberidaceae | ||||
85 | Berberis crataegina | L, FR, R | DE, EF, IN | 10, 12, 13, 16, 41, 50–52 |
86 | Berberis integerrima | FR | EF | 42 |
87 | Berberis vulgaris | FR | DE | 10 |
88 | Bongardia chrysogonum | T | IN | 129 |
Boraginaceae | ||||
89 | Anchusa azurea | AP, R | DE | 19 |
90 | Anchusa undulata ssp. hybrida | L | BO | 137 |
Brassicaceae | ||||
91 | Brassica elongata | FL | DE | 14 |
92 | Brassica oleracea | AP | C | 16 |
93 | Brassica nigra | AP | DE | 23 |
94 | Capsella bursa-pastoris | AP | DE, IN | 10, 16, 39 |
95 | Eruca vesicaria | L | EF | 45 |
96 | Lepidium sativum | L | R | 133 |
97 | Nasturtium officinale | AP, FL, L, SH | EF, IN | 9, 49, 53 |
98 | Raphanus raphanistrum | AP | C, EF | 54 |
99 | Sinapis alba | FL | IN | 36, 55 |
100 | Sinapis arvensis | FL, SH | EF, IN | 30, 36, 55 |
Capparaceae | ||||
101 | Capparis spinosa | AP | DE | 56 |
Caprifoliaceae | ||||
102 | Dipsacus laciniatus | R | DE | 10 |
Caryophyllaceae | ||||
103 | Dianthus carmelitarum | FL | IN | 16 |
Cistaceae | ||||
104 | Cistus creticus | L | DE, IN | 35, 36, 43 |
105 | Cistus laurifolius | BD, BR, FL, L, R, SH | DE, IN, MA | 6, 12, 13, 26, 35, 36, 43, 51, 58 |
106 | Cistus salviifolius | BR | IN | 36 |
Cornaceae | ||||
107 | Cornus mas | FR, L | DE, EF | 1, 2, 59–61 |
Cucurbitaceae | ||||
108 | Cucumis sativus | FR | EF | 62, 63 |
109 | Cucurbita moschata | S | EF | 29 |
110 | Ecballium elaterium | 64 | ||
111 | Momordica charantia | FR | PW | 12, 13, 15 |
Cupressaceae | ||||
112 | Cupressus sempervirens | CO, S | DE | 16, 34, 64, 65 |
113 | Juniperus communis | FR | DE | 62 |
114 | Juniperus drupacea | FR, R | 15 | |
115 | Juniperus excelsa | CO | DE | 45, 62 |
116 | Juniperus foetidissima | CO | EF, IN | 16, 66 |
117 | Juniperus oxycedrus | BR, CO, L, S | DE, IN | 14, 16, 33, 65–70 |
118 | Juniperus sabina | SH | DE | 42 |
Dioscoreaceae | ||||
119 | Dioscorea communis | FL, R | BO, R | 43 |
Ebenaceae | ||||
120 | Diospyros kaki | FR | EF | 139 |
Elaeagnaceae | ||||
121 | Elaeagnus angustifolia | FR, L | DE, IN | 16, 43 |
Equisetaceae | ||||
122 | Equisetum arvense | AP, L | 15 | |
123 | Equisetum ramosissimum | AP | BO, DE, IN | 10, 151 |
Ericaceae | ||||
124 | Arbutus andrachne | FR | DE | 71 |
125 | Arbutus unedo | FR | EF | 144 |
126 | Vaccinium myrtillus | FR, L | DR, EF, IN | 12, 13, 72, 73 |
Euphorbiaceae | ||||
127 | Euphorbia rigida | LA | 123 | |
128 | Ricinus communis | S | EF, DE | 12, 13 |
Fabaceae | ||||
129 | Astracantha gummifera | R | DE, IN | 10, 37, 146 |
130 | Astragalus brevicalyx | R | R | 25 |
131 | Astragalus bustillosii | R | DE | 19 |
132 | Astragalus ceramicus var. filifolius | R | IN | 146 |
133 | Ceratonia siliqua | FR | DE | 14, 16 |
134 | Galega officinalis | FL | IN | 15 |
135 | Glycyrrhiza glabra | R | DE | 16 |
136 | Lathyrus sativus | S | DE | 74 |
137 | Lathyrus tuberosus | L | C | 11 |
138 | Lupinus albus | S | CR, EF | 13, 27 |
139 | Lupinus angustifolius ssp. angustifolius | S | CR | 21 |
140 | Lupinus pilosus | FR | C, DR, EF, PW | 26 |
141 | Phaseolus vulgaris | AP | DE | 133 |
142 | Robinia pseudoacacia | FL | R | 128 |
143 | Trigonella foenum-graecum | S | DE, IN, PN, PW | 12, 13, 18, 72, 75 |
144 | Vicia ervilia | S | DE | 52 |
145 | Vicia faba | FR, S | EF | 74, 75 |
Fagaceae | ||||
146 | Castanea sativa | FL | IN | 31, 76 |
147 | Quercus brantii | FR | EF | 30, 56 |
148 | Quercus cerris | FR | DE | 24 |
149 | Quercus coccifera | BR, CU, FR, R | DE, EF | 14, 16, 43, 66, 77 |
150 | Quercus infectoria ssp. veneris | FR | DE, EF | 77, 78 |
151 | Quercus ithaburensis ssp. macrolepis | FR | EF | 30 |
152 | Quercus petraea ssp. pinnatiloba | FR | DE, IN | 19 |
153 | Quercus robur | FR, ST | DE | 24, 78 |
Gentianaceae | ||||
154 | Centaurium erythraea | AP | DE, IN, MO | 43 |
155 | Gentiana olivieri | FL | IN | 78 |
Geraniaceae | ||||
156 | Erodium cedrorum ssp. salmoneum | AP | IN | 149 |
157 | Erodium cicutarium | AP | IN | 149 |
158 | Erodium gruinum | AP | IN | 149 |
159 | Erodium pelargoniflorum | AP | IN | 149 |
160 | Geranium robertianum | AP | DE, IN | 12, 13, 71 |
161 | Geranium tuberosum | AP | DE | 17 |
162 | Pelargonium graveolens | L | DE | 133 |
Hypericaceae | ||||
163 | Hypericum adenotrichum | AP | BO | 76 |
164 | Hypericum empetrifolium | AP | IN | 54 |
165 | Hypericum perforatum | AP, FL, L | DE, IN | 3, 16, 44, 64, 75, 79, 80 |
166 | Hypericum scabrum | FL | DE | 16 |
167 | Hypericum tetrapterum | AP | DE | 80 |
168 | Hypericum triquetrifolium | AP | DE | 16, 56, 80 |
Juglandaceae | ||||
169 | Juglans regia | FR, FR-S, L, S, ST-B | DE, IN, R, MC | 1, 12–14, 16, 18, 19, 24, 25, 31, 32, 40, 43, 64, 72, 75, 81–84 |
Lamiaceae | ||||
170 | Ajuga chamaepitys ssp. chia | L | DE | 71 |
171 | Lamium amplexicaule | WP | DE | 85 |
172 | Lavandula stoechas | AP, FL, L | DE | 15, 16, 54, 75, 86 |
173 | Melissa officinalis | AP, FL, L, SH | DE, IN | 3, 15, 16, 49, 60, 87, 88 |
174 | Mentha aquatica | AP | EF | 9 |
175 | Mentha longifolia | L | DE | 74 |
176 | Mentha pulegium | AP | DE | 54 |
177 | Mentha spicata | L | DE | 89 |
178 | Micromeria cristata ssp. orientalis | AP | IN | 135 |
179 | Micromeria juliana | AP | IN | 76 |
180 | Ocimum basilicum | L | CP, IN, MA | 43 |
181 | Origanum majorana | AP | IN | 16, 90 |
182 | Origanum onites | AP, FL, L, ST | DE, EF, IN | 6, 12, 13, 16, 35, 36, 54, 80 |
183 | Origanum vulgare ssp. gracile | AP | IN | 39 |
184 | Origanum vulgare ssp. hirtum | AP, FL, L | IN | 7, 16, 60, 88, 91 |
185 | Origanum vulgare ssp. vulgare | AP | DE | 1, 2 |
186 | Phlomis linearis | AP | DE | 24 |
187 | Rosmarinus officinalis | AP, FL, L | DE, IN | 15, 43, 49, 62, 80, 92 |
188 | Salvia cyanescens | AP | DE | 136 |
189 | Salvia fruticosa | L | IN | 133 |
190 | Salvia hydrangea | H | IN | 10 |
191 | Salvia multicaulis | AP | IN | 33 |
192 | Salvia officinalis | L | IN | 133 |
193 | Salvia virgata | 93 | ||
194 | Satureja cuneifolia | AP, FL, L, ST | IN | 12, 13, 24 |
195 | Satureja thymbra | AP | IN | 149 |
196 | Sideritis congesta | L | IN | 74 |
197 | Sideritis lanata | FL | IN | 133 |
198 | Sideritis perfoliata | 92 | ||
199 | Stachys annua | AP | IN | 94 |
200 | Stachys cretica | AP | 141 | |
201 | Teucrium chamaedrys ssp. chamaedrys | FL | IN | 49 |
202 | Teucrium chamaedrys ssp. lydium | AP | IN | 16 |
203 | Teucrium chamaedrys ssp. sinuatum | S, AP | DE, IN | 32, 27 |
204 | Teucrium chamaedrys ssp. tauricola | FL, L | IN | 130 |
205 | Teucrium polium | AP, FL, L, WP | DE, IN, EF | 2, 8, 10, 12, 13, 16, 19, 25, 32, 33, 35–37, 45–47, 52, 61, 62, 66, 78, 95–100 |
206 | Thymbra capitata | AP, OO | DOA, IN | 6, 149 |
207 | Thymbra spicata | AP, FL, L | CP, IN | 7, 16, 35, 36, 43, 60, 76, 88, 92, 96 |
208 | Thymus cilicicus | L | IN | 96 |
209 | Thymus fallax | AP | DE, IN | 10, 52 |
210 | Thymus kotschyanus ssp. kotschyanus | AP, H, L | DE, IN | 10, 22, 46, 52 |
211 | Thymus leucostomus | AP | IN | 88 |
212 | Thymus longicaulis ssp. chaubardii | AP, L | DE, IN | 3, 16, 31, 48, 60, 88 |
213 | Thymus praecox ssp. jankae | AP | DE, IN | 16, 101 |
214 | Thymus nummularius | AP | IN | 16 |
215 | Thymus sipyleus | AP | DE, IN | 10, 20, 47, 52, 88 |
216 | Thymus zygioides | AP | IN | 1, 7, 26, 67, 68 |
217 | Vitex agnus-castus | S | BO | 76, 98 |
Lauraceae | ||||
218 | Cinnamomum zeylanicum | ST-B | DE | 27 |
219 | Laurus nobilis | FR, L | DE, EF | 14, 16, 89, 102 |
Linaceae | ||||
220 | Linum hirsutum | S | PW | 67 |
221 | Linum usitatissimum | S | IN | 21 |
222 | Linum tenuifolium | AP | DE | 3 |
Lythraceae | ||||
223 | Punica granatum | FL, FR-J, FR | DE, IN, SY | 4, 16, 23, 35, 36, 43, 62, 110 |
Malvaceae | ||||
224 | Abelmoschus esculentus | S | IN | 27, 28, 107 |
225 | Malva neglecta | FL, L | C, IN, MA | 43, 108 |
226 | Malva sylvestris | AP, FL, L, R | DE, IN, MA | 23, 31, 43 |
Moraceae | ||||
227 | Ficus carica | 144 | ||
228 | Morus alba | L, FR | DE, SY | 2, 16, 22, 31, 59, 64, 89, 94 |
229 | Morus nigra | FR, L, ST-B | DE, IN | 3, 4, 15, 16, 32, 72, 74, 94, 96, 108, 109 |
230 | Morus rubra | FR-J, FR, L | IN, R, SY | 43, 66 |
Myrtaceae | ||||
231 | Eucalyptus camaldulensis | L | DE, IN | 12, 13 |
232 | Myrtus communis | FR, L | DE, EF, IN | 6, 12–14, 16, 23, 29, 45, 54, 62, 74, 110 |
Oleaceae | ||||
233 | Jasminum officinale | FL | DE | 133 |
234 | Olea europaea | BD, FL, FR, FR-J, L, OO, S | DE, IN, MA, PU, R | 6, 13, 15, 16, 40, 43, 45, 49, 54, 64, 72, 96, 97, 90 |
235 | Phillyrea latifolia | FR, L | EF, IN | 16, 60 |
Orchidaceae | ||||
236 | Orchis simia | B | DE | 111 |
Paeoniaceae | ||||
237 | Paeonia arietina | AP | IN | 10, 39 |
Papaveraceae | ||||
238 | Fumaria officinalis | AP | C | 61 |
239 | Papaver argemone | AP | IN | 80 |
240 | Papaver dubium ssp. lecoqii | AP | IN | 80 |
241 | Papaver rhoeas | AP | IN | 22, 80 |
Pedaliaceae | ||||
242 | Sesamum indicum | FR, S | EF | 12, 13 |
Pinaceae | ||||
243 | Cedrus libani | R | DE | 126 |
244 | Pinus brutia | CO, L, PT, RS, SH, ST-B | CH, DE, IN, PU, R | 6, 14, 43, 110 |
245 | Pinus nigra ssp. pallasiana | CO, PT, RS | BO, G | 34, 43, 112 |
246 | Pinus sylvestris | CO | BO, DE | 113 |
Plantaginaceae | ||||
247 | Plantago lanceolata | L | DE | 46, 50 |
248 | Plantago major ssp. major | L | DE, IN | 2, 3, 16, 44 |
249 | Plantago major ssp. intermedia | L | DE | 67, 114 |
Platanaceae | ||||
250 | Platanus orientalis | FR, L | DE, IN | 25, 32, 60, 102 |
Poaceae | ||||
251 | Elymus repens | AP, RH | DE | 15, 22, 33 |
252 | Avena barbata | L, SH | IN | 49 |
253 | Avena sativa | FR | DE | 133 |
254 | Cynodon dactylon | AP, L, R | DE, IN | 31, 46, 60, 138 |
255 | Hordeum vulgare | S | C | 73 |
Polygonaceae | ||||
256 | Polygonum cognatum | L | C, EF, IN | 33, 96 |
257 | Rheum ribes | R, SH, ST | DE, IN, R | 10, 17, 18, 39, 42, 104, 127, 132, 142 |
258 | Rumex acetosella | L | EF | 23, 39, 63 |
259 | Rumex crispus | L | DE, IN, C | 25, 42, 94 |
260 | Rumex pulcher | L | R | 94, 134 |
261 | Rumex scutatus | H | DE | 42 |
262 | Rumex tuberosus | H, L, R | C, EF, IN, R | 25, 42, 115 |
Portulacaceae | ||||
263 | Portulaca oleracea | AP, L | C, DE, IN, MA, PU, R | 19, 25, 30, 33, 43, 45 |
Ranunculaceae | ||||
264 | Nigella sativa | S | DE, EF, PW | 12, 13, 62, 110 |
265 | Nigella segetalis | S, SH | DE | 10, 18, 21 |
Rhamnaceae | ||||
266 | Paliurus spina-christi | R, S | CR, DE | 2, 43, 44, 54, 62 |
267 | Rhamnus lycioides ssp. oleoides | FR | EF | 24 |
268 | Ziziphus jujuba | FR | EF, DE, DR | 12, 13, 16, 35, 36, 116 |
Rosaceae | ||||
269 | Alchemilla compactilis | FL, L | DE, IN | 148 |
270 | Prunus dulcis | FR, S | EF | 12, 13, 16, 27, 43, 54, 62, 67, 75, 94, 144 |
271 | Cotoneaster nummularius | FR, L | DE, PN, R | 19, 24, 113 |
272 | Crataegus azoralus var. aronia | FL, FR | DE | 10, 20 |
273 | Crataegus meyeri | FR, R | DE, EF | 10, 52 |
274 | Crataegus monogyna | SH | DE | 14 |
275 | Crataegus orientalis ssp. orientalis | FR, L, S | DE, IN, MA, R | 43 |
276 | Crataegus orientalis ssp. szovitsii | FL, L, ST-B, SH | DE, IN | 134 |
277 | Crataegus tanacetifolia | FL, SH | DE | 113 |
278 | Cydonia oblonga | FR, L | DE, EF, IN | 16, 19, 35, 36, 44, 103, 110 |
279 | Eriobotrya japonica | L | DE, IN | 149 |
280 | Fragaria vesca | FR, R | DE | 16 |
281 | Fragaria viridis | FR | R | 140 |
282 | Malus domestica | FR | DE | 35 |
283 | Malus pumila | FL | IN | 62 |
284 | Malus sylvestris ssp. orientalis var. orientalis | FR, L | DE, EF | 3, 10, 38, 106 |
285 | Mespilus germanica | FR, L | EF, IN | 31, 103 |
286 | Prunus armeniaca | FR, S | R | 25 |
287 | Prunus avium | 135, 145 | ||
288 | Prunus cerasus | S | MO | 125 |
289 | Prunus cocomilia | FR | DE | 3 |
290 | Prunus divaricata var. divaricata | FR | DE, R, SY | 43, 61 |
291 | Prunus laurocerasus | FR, L, S | DE, EF | 16, 20, 31, 60, 73 |
292 | Prunus mahaleb | FR, S | EF, IN | 10, 12, 13, 22, 27, 47, 56, 61 |
293 | Prunus orientalis | S | BO, EF | 63, 94 |
294 | Prunus persica | S | EF | 30 |
295 | Prunus spinosa ssp. dasphylla | FR | BO, DE, DR, EF, JA, IN | 1–3, 15, 16, 31, 44, 62, 79, 103 |
296 | Pyrus amygdaliformis var. amygdaliformis | FL, FR | DE | 6, 92, 117 |
297 | Pyrus amygdaliformis var. lanceolata | FR | PI | 131 |
298 | Pyrus bulgarica | FR | EF, PI | 1 |
299 | Pyrus communis ssp. caucasica | FR | DE | 33 |
300 | Pyrus communis ssp. communis | FR, R, ST-B | 15 | |
301 | Pyrus elaeagnifolia ssp. elaeagnifolia | FL, FR, L | DE, IN | 3, 29, 62 |
302 | Rosa boissieri | FR-J | 135 | |
303 | Rosa canina | FL, FR, FR-S, L, R, S | DE, EF, JA, IN | 2, 4, 10, 14, 16, 17, 31, 33, 35–38, 43, 46, 47, 50, 51, 58–60, 71, 74, 81, 82, 85, 96, 98, 100, 103, 108, 109, 114, 115, 118, 119 |
304 | Rosa mollis | FR-J | 135 | |
305 | Rosa phoenicia | FR | DE | 35, 36 |
306 | Rubus caesius | R | DE | 23 |
307 | Rubus canescens | BD, FR, L, R, SH | DE, IN | 1, 7, 10, 16, 21, 30, 45, 75 |
308 | Rubus hirtus | L, R | DE, IN | 10, 16, 57 |
309 | Rubus ibericus | L, R | DE, IN | 1, 16, 33 |
310 | Rubus idaeus | L, R | DE, IN | 16, 62 |
311 | Rubus sanctus | BD, FR, L, R, SH | IN | 2, 7, 12–14, 16, 19, 22, 49, 57, 76, 79, 92, 94, 101, 114, 117, 118 |
312 | Sarcopoterium spinosum | AP, R, ST, ST-B | DE, IN | 12, 13, 72, 104 |
313 | Sorbus aucuparia | FR | EF | 60 |
314 | Sorbus domestica | FR, L | DE, EF, PI | 3, 12, 13, 16, 72, 91, 106 |
315 | Sorbus umbellata var. cretica | FR, L | IN | 49 |
316 | Sorbus umbellata var. umbellata | FR, L | IN | 49 |
317 | Sorbus torminalis | L | DE | 3 |
Rubiaceae | ||||
318 | Galium aparine | AP | DE | 6, 33 |
Rutaceae | ||||
319 | Citrus maxima | FR-J | EF | 6 |
Salicaceae | ||||
320 | Populus tremula | L | IN | 1, 116 |
321 | Salix alba | BR, FL, L | DE | 14, 16, 60 |
Santalaceae | ||||
322 | Viscum album ssp. abietis | FR, L | DE | 149 |
323 | Viscum album ssp. album | AP, H, L | DE, IN | 6, 10, 14, 16, 24, 26, 31, 38, 39, 51, 61, 94, 98, 100, 101, 106 |
324 | Viscum album ssp. austriacum | L | DE | 43 |
Scrophulariaceae | ||||
325 | Verbascum macrurum | FL | IN | 16 |
326 | Verbascum stenostachyum | FL, L | EF, IN | 38 |
Simaroubaceae | ||||
327 | Quassia amara | ST | IN | 103 |
Smilacaceae | ||||
328 | Smilax excelsa | SH | BO | 105 |
Solanaceae | ||||
329 | Physalis alkekengi | FR, S | DE | 34, 74 |
330 | Solanum tuberosum | T | R | 133, 143 |
Styracaceae | ||||
331 | Styrax officinalis | L, S | DE, EF | 14, 26 |
Urticaceae | ||||
332 | Parietaria judaica | AP | DE | 100 |
333 | Parietaria officinalis | AP | DE | 133 |
334 | Urtica dioica | AP, L, S, WP | C, DE, IN | 2, 4, 6, 11, 16, 22, 23, 29, 31–34, 37, 41, 45, 57, 60, 68, 78, 92, 101, 103, 109, 113, 115, 119–122 |
335 | Urtica pilulifera | AP, S | C, DE | 14, 80, 81 |
336 | Urtica urens | AP, L, R, S | CR, DE | 9, 16, 80 |
Vitaceae | ||||
337 | Vitis vinifera | L | 150 | |
Xanthorrhoeaceae | ||||
338 | Asphodelus aestivus | L | C | 63 |
339 | Eremurus spectabilis | AP, R | DE, MA | 19, 39 |
Zygophyllaceae | ||||
340 | Tribulus terrestris | AP | DE | 23, 96 |
Appendix 2: Medicinal Plants Used in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Pakistan
No | Family/taxa | Parts used | Preparations | Resourcesa |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Acanthaceae | ||||
1 | Justicia adhatoda | BD, FR, L, WP | DE, EF, EX, JU | 1–8 |
Adoxaceae | ||||
2 | Viburnum grandiflorum | L | EX | 9 |
Aizoaceae | ||||
3 | Trianthema triquetra | WP | DE, IN, PW | 10 |
Alismataceae | ||||
4 | Alisma plantago-aquatica | L, RH | PW | 8, 11 |
Amaranthaceae | ||||
5 | Achyranthes aspera | S | PW | 12, 13 |
6 | Aerva javanica | DE | 14, 15 | |
7 | Chenopodium album | 14, 15 | ||
8 | Chenopodium foliosum | R | DE | 16 |
9 | Chenopodium murale | 14, 15 | ||
10 | Dysphania botrys | AP | 17 | |
11 | Salsola imbricata | DE | 15 | |
Amaryllidaceae | ||||
12 | Allium cepa | B | G | 1, 2, 8, 18, 19 |
13 | Allium sativum | B, L | C, EF | 1, 2, 8, 11, 19, 20–24 |
Asparagaceae | ||||
14 | Asparagus officinalis | S | PW | 25 |
Anacardiaceae | ||||
15 | Mangifera indica | L, S | DR, EX | 24, 26 |
Annonaceae | ||||
16 | Polyalthia longifolia | L, R, ST | BO | 8, 27 |
Apiaceae | ||||
17 | Carum carvi | S | BO, EX | 28 |
18 | Coriandrum sativum | OO, S | CH | 24, 29, 30 |
19 | Cuminum nigrum | FR | 31 | |
20 | Daucus carota | JU | 2, 15, 32 | |
21 | Ferula narthex | WP | PW | 8 |
22 | Foeniculum vulgare | L, S | BO, EX, PW | 19, 33 |
23 | Narthex asafoetida | RS | 34 | |
Apocynaceae | ||||
24 | Calotropis procera | FL | BO, EX | 8 |
25 | Caralluma adscendens var. fimbriata | ST | 35 | |
26 | Caralluma edulis | AP, WP | C, EX, PW | 1, 2, 6, 8, 36, 37 |
27 | Caralluma tuberculata | FR, R, ST, WP | AV, C, EX | 6, 36, 38, 39 |
28 | Carissa spinarum | L, R | DE | 4 |
29 | Catharanthus roseus | L, WP | JU | 1, 8, 11, 40, 41 |
30 | Gymnema sylvestre | L | BO, IN | 22, 42 |
31 | Nerium oleander | L, LA, S | IN, PW | 19 |
32 | Pergularia tomentosa | 8 | ||
33 | Rauvolfia serpentina | L | EX | 43, 44 |
34 | Rhazya stricta | L, WP | BO, PW | 6, 8, 45, 47, 126 |
35 | Tylophora hirsuta | BR, L | EX, JU | 2, 8 |
Araceae | ||||
36 | Anthurium sp. | 14 | ||
37 | Monstera deliciosa | FR | PL | 9 |
38 | Pistia stratiotes | L, ST | EX | 48 |
Araliaceae | ||||
39 | Hedera helix | B, L | EX | 5, 8, 49, 50 |
40 | Hedera nepalensis | L, FR | EX, PW | 7, 11, 19, 49, 51, 52 |
Arecaceae | ||||
41 | Nannorrhops ritchiana | 14 | ||
42 | Phoenix sylvestris | S | DE | 53 |
Asteraceae | ||||
43 | Achillea santolinoides ssp. wilhelmsii | WP | DE, IN | 33 |
44 | Arctium lappa | L, R, ST | DE | 8, 54 |
45 | Artemisia absinthium | FL, L, WP | BO, DE, EX | 8, 16, 54 |
46 | Artemisia gmelinii | 55 | ||
47 | Artemisia herba-alba | WP | PW | 56 |
48 | Artemisia indica | AP | EX | 56, 57 |
49 | Artemisia roxburghiana | L | EX | 9 |
50 | Artemisia scoparia | FR | EF | 17 |
51 | Baccharoides anthelmintica | S | PW | 52 |
52 | Centaurea iberica | L | EX | 9 |
53 | Chrysanthemum indicum | FL | EX | 52 |
54 | Cichorium intybus | R, L, SH | DE, PW | 1, 2, 58, 59 |
55 | Erigeron bonariensis | 14 | ||
56 | Cousinia thomsonii | CA | DR, PW | 16 |
57 | Cynara scolymus | RE | 11 | |
58 | Galinsoga parviflora | 60 | ||
59 | Lactuca sativa | L | JU | 11 |
60 | Launaea procumbens | L, WP | AV, C, EX | 8, 27 |
61 | Parthenium hysterophorus | FL | PW | 8, 37, 61 |
62 | Seriphidium quettense | L | 33 | |
63 | Silybum marianum | WP | DE | 4 |
64 | Sonchus asper | L, R | AV, C | 7, 52 |
65 | Stevia rebaudiana | L | EX | 62 |
66 | Tanacetum artemisioides | WP | BO | 8, 54 |
67 | Taraxacum campylodes | L, R, WP | AV, DE, PW | 1, 2, 8, 9, 16, 37 |
68 | Tricholepis furcata | 8 | ||
69 | Vernonia cinerea | FR | 39 | |
Berberidaceae | ||||
70 | Berberis brandisiana | R, ST | PW | 8 |
71 | Berberis lycium | FR, R, ST-B, WP | DE, EX, PW | 8, 52, 63, 64, 65 |
72 | Berberis orthobotrys | FR, L, R | 16 | |
Betulaceae | ||||
73 | Alnus nitida | L | 8 | |
Boraginaceae | ||||
74 | Arnebia benthamii | FL, L | DE | 16 |
75 | Onosma echioides | R | EX | 12 |
Brassicaceae | ||||
76 | Brassica cretica | FL | AV | 66 |
77 | Lepidium didymum | 15 | ||
78 | Eruca vesicaria | S, WP | AV, C, MO | 4, 52 |
79 | Farsetia stylosa | WP | DE, PW | 10, 67 |
80 | Raphanus raphanistrum ssp. sativus | R | BO | 8 |
Cactaceae | ||||
81 | Opuntia dillenii | FR, FR-J, LA | DR, EF, JU | 8, 68, 69 |
82 | Opuntia monacantha | FR | DR | 8 |
Capparaceae | ||||
83 | Capparis cartilaginea | L | PW | 8 |
84 | Capparis decidua | FR, S | EX | 8, 70, 71 |
85 | Capparis spinosa | L | BO, EX | 6, 8 |
Cleomaceae | ||||
86 | Cleome scaposa | L | BO, DE | 10 |
Caricaceae | ||||
87 | Carica papaya | FR | 8 | |
Caryophyllaceae | ||||
88 | Stellaria media | WP | IN | 72 |
Convolvulaceae | ||||
89 | Convolvulus arvensis | 14 | ||
90 | Convolvulus prostratus | L | BO, DE | 10 |
91 | Cuscuta campestris | WP | BO, EX | 8 |
92 | Cuscuta reflexa | SH, WP | EX | 8, 33, 39 |
Cucurbitaceae | ||||
93 | Coccinia grandis | L, R | JU | 8, 73–75 |
94 | Cucumis melo | FR | PL | 17 |
95 | Cucumis sativus | FR-J | 8 | |
96 | Cucurbita maxima | FR | R | 33 |
97 | Cucurbita pepo | FR | 8, 14 | |
98 | Luffa acutangula | FR | C | 17, 76 |
99 | Momordica balsamina | FR | EX, PW | 8, 77 |
100 | Momordica charantia | FR, L | C, DR, EX, JU, PW, R | 1–3, 8, 15, 22, 33, 78–80 |
101 | Momordica dioica | FR | DR, EF, JU, PW | 8, 45, 81 |
102 | Mukia maderaspatana | 14 | ||
103 | Citrullus colocynthis | FR, R, S | EF, PW | 6, 8, 10, 24, 38, 45 |
104 | Citrullus lanatus | FR | EF | 8, 14 |
Cupressaceae | ||||
105 | Juniperus communis var. saxatilis | IN | 82 | |
106 | Juniperus excelsa | FR | BO | 8 |
Cyperaceae | ||||
107 | Cyperus rotundus | AP, R, T | BO, DE | 2, 10, 83, 84 |
Dioscoreaceae | ||||
108 | Dioscorea deltoidea | 60 | ||
Elaeagnaceae | ||||
109 | Elaeagnus angustifolia | FR | R | 33 |
110 | Elaeagnus rhamnoides | FR, S | JA | 8, 85 |
Equisetaceae | ||||
111 | Equisetum arvense | AP, WP | AT, DE, PU | 125, 127 |
Euphorbiaceae | ||||
112 | Acalypha wilkesiana | 86 | ||
113 | Euphorbia helioscopia | FL, L | EX | 9 |
114 | Euphorbia hirta | L, WP | BO, EX | 8 |
115 | Euphorbia thymifolia | WP | PW | 8, 87 |
116 | Manihot esculenta | 86 | ||
Fabaceae | ||||
117 | Acacia modesta | FL, S | DE, G, PW | 8 |
118 | Acacia nilotica | L, S, ST | BO, DE, EF, G, IN | 6, 8, 74, 79, 88 |
119 | Acacia senegal | G | 74, 11 | |
120 | Argyrolobium roseum | WP | IN | 6, 8 |
121 | Alhagi maurorum | R | PW | 8, 73, 74 |
122 | Albizia lebbeck | S | PW | 6, 8, 89 |
123 | Albizia procera | 60 | ||
124 | Bauhinia purpurea | WP | AV | 8, 41 |
125 | Bauhinia variegata | L | IN | 9 |
126 | Butea monosperma | FL, LA, ST-B | G, PW | 8, 53, 59 |
127 | Cajanus cajan | S | C | 2, 8, 90 |
128 | Cassia fistula | L, S | DR, PL | 8, 12, 65 |
129 | Cicer arietinum | FR, S | DE, RA | 2, 11, 14, 31 |
130 | Dalbergia sissoo | G, PW | 19 | |
131 | Glycine max | S | EX | 11, 91 |
132 | Medicago monantha | WP | AV | 92 |
133 | Medicago polymorpha | 14 | ||
134 | Melilotus albus | 14 | ||
135 | Mucuna pruriens | S | DE | 12, 62 |
136 | Parkinsonia aculeata | FL, ST-B | 92 | |
137 | Prosopis cineraria | 14 | ||
138 | Senna obtusifolia | FL | EX | 88 |
139 | Trigonella foenum-graecum | L, S | DE, EX | 1, 2, 8, 22, 78, 93, 94 |
140 | Vigna mungo | S | C | 2 |
141 | Vigna unguiculata | IP | AV | 2 |
Fagaceae | ||||
142 | Quercus ilex | 95 | ||
Gentianaceae | ||||
143 | Gentiana olivieri | AP | EX | 96 |
144 | Gentiana tianschanica | FL, L | BO, EX, IN | 8, 16, 58 |
145 | Swertia chirata | WP | DR, EX | 8, 52 |
146 | Swertia petiolata | WP | DE | 16 |
Lamiaceae | ||||
147 | Ajuga integrifolia | WP | BO | 8 |
148 | Ajuga parviflora | AP | EX | 97 |
149 | Ajuga reptans | WP | 39 | |
150 | Clerodendrum phlomidis | 8 | ||
151 | Lamium amplexicaule | L | JU | 59 |
152 | Mentha x piperita | L, S | BO, IN, PW | 8, 19 |
153 | Mentha longifolia | L | BO, DE, EX | 8, 33 |
154 | Ocimum basilicum | L | PW | 8 |
155 | Ocimum tenuiflorum | L | PW | 8 |
156 | Origanum vulgare | L | EX | 8, 79 |
157 | Pseudocaryopteris bicolor | FL, L | PW | 8 |
158 | Salvia coccinea | L | EX | 9 |
159 | Teucrium stocksianum | SH, WP | BO, CR, DE, EX | 8, 17, 33, 98 |
160 | Vitex negundo | FL | PW | 53 |
Limeaceae | ||||
161 | Limeum obovatum | WP | BO, IN | 10 |
Lythraceae | ||||
162 | Lawsonia inermis | L | EX | 78, 99 |
163 | Punica granatum | FR | DR, EF, PW | 5, 51, 69 |
164 | Woodfordia fruticosa | FL | PW | 53 |
Malvaceae | ||||
165 | Abelmoschus esculentus | R | DR | 32 |
166 | Bombax ceiba | L, WP | EX | 19, 100 |
167 | Grewia asiatica | FR | EF | 12, 17, 34, 38, 101, 102 |
168 | Malva neglecta | L | EX, JU | 8, 61 |
169 | Sida cordata | WP | EX | 19 |
Meliaceae | ||||
170 | Azadirachta indica | FL, FR, L | DR, PW | 2, 8 |
171 | Cedrela serrata | L, ST | DE, EX, JU | 51, 53, 104 |
172 | Melia azedarach | FR, L, WP | DE, DR, JU | 1, 4, 18, 32, 39, 45 |
173 | Toona ciliata | L | PW | 105 |
Menispermaceae | ||||
174 | Cissampelos pareira | S | PW | 19 |
175 | Cocculus hirsutus | AP | EX | 96 |
Moraceae | ||||
176 | Ficus benghalensis | BR, FR, L, LA, R, ST-B | 2, 3, 6, 8, 24, 106, 107 | |
177 | Ficus carica | L | BO, EX | 8, 24, 42 |
178 | Ficus hispida | ST-B | EX | 8 |
179 | Ficus lacor | FR | DR, PW | 8 |
180 | Ficus microcarpa | FR, L, ST-B | PW | 8, 106 |
181 | Ficus palmata | FR | 8, 81, 89 | |
182 | Ficus racemosa | ST-B | BO, EX | 8, 12 |
183 | Ficus religiosa | ST-B | 8, 106 | |
184 | Ficus virens | L | 8 | |
185 | Morus alba | L, R | BO | 8, 19, 65, 78, 108 |
186 | Morus nigra | FR, L, ST-B | 8, 52 | |
Moringaceae | ||||
187 | Moringa oleifera | FL, FR, S | BO, C | 8, 11 |
Musaceae | ||||
188 | Musa acuminata | FL | PW, RA | 38 |
Myrtaceae | ||||
189 | Eucalyptus globulus | ST-B | BO | 19 |
190 | Eucalyptus obliqua | 15 | ||
191 | Myrtus communis | L | EX | 109 |
192 | Psidium guajava | L, ST-B | EX | 1, 2, 8, 14, 52 |
193 | Syzygium cumini | FR, S | BO, PW | 1, 2, 8, 11, 12, 14, 22, 24, 37, 38, 40, 42, 52, 61, 78 |
Nitrariaceae | ||||
194 | Peganum harmala | WP | JU | 92 |
Nyctaginaceae | ||||
195 | Boerhavia diffusa | L | EX | 19 |
Orchidaceae | ||||
196 | Dactylorhiza hatagirea | RH | BO | 16 |
Oleaceae | ||||
197 | Fraxinus excelsior | S | PW | 19 |
198 | Olea europaea | FR | EF, DE, DR | 4, 6, 8 |
199 | Olea ferruginea | FR | BO, DE, DR, EF | 1, 2, 8, 17, 38, 74, 75 |
Oxalidaceae | ||||
200 | Oxalis corniculata | WP | EX | 19, 33, 65 |
Papaveraceae | ||||
201 | Fumaria indica | WP | JU | 8, 18, 52, 100 |
202 | Fumaria parviflora | WP | DE | 92 |
203 | Papaver somniferum | FL, FR, LA, S | BO, EX | 8, 52 |
Pedaliaceae | ||||
204 | Sesamum indicum | 8 | ||
Phyllanthaceae | ||||
205 | Leptopus cordifolius | L | BO, EX | 8, 49 |
206 | Phyllanthus acidus | 86 | ||
207 | Phyllanthus amarus | 86 | ||
208 | Phyllanthus emblica | FR | DR, JA, PW | 8, 65, 86 |
209 | Phyllanthus maderaspatensis | 86 | ||
210 | Phyllanthus urinaria | 86 | ||
Pinaceae | ||||
211 | Abies pindrow | L | EX | 9 |
212 | Pinus roxburghii | RS | 17 | |
Plantaginaceae | ||||
213 | Kickxia incana | WP | PW | 92 |
214 | Nanorhinum ramosissimum | WP | PW | 1, 2, 75, 92 |
215 | Picrorhiza kurroa | R | PW | 61 |
Poaceae | ||||
216 | Avena fatua | 14 | ||
217 | Hordeum vulgare | S, WP | BO, PW | 2, 24 |
218 | Oryza sativa | S | PW | 2 |
219 | Ochthochloa compressa | 14 | ||
220 | Pennisetum glaucum | S | 8 | |
221 | Phalaris minor | 15 | ||
222 | Sporobolus ioclados | 14 | ||
223 | Triticum aestivum | FR, S | 2, 81, 110 | |
224 | Zea mays | FL | EX | 2, 8, 111 |
Polygonaceae | ||||
225 | Fagopyrum esculentum | L, S | C, PW | 8, 85 |
226 | Polygonum plebeium | 14 | ||
227 | Rumex acetosa | SH | 39 | |
228 | Rumex hastatus | WP | 4 | |
Portulacaceae | ||||
229 | Portulaca oleracea | L | C | 38 |
Primulaceae | ||||
230 | Anagallis arvensis | 14 | ||
Pteridaceae | ||||
231 | Adiantum capillus-veneris | ST-B | BO, DE | 8, 22, 112 |
232 | Adiantum incisum | FO | JU | 8, 59, 104, 112, 113 |
Ranunculaceae | ||||
233 | Aconitum chasmanthum | RH | 11 | |
234 | Delphinium brunonianum | R | PW | 16 |
235 | Nigella sativa | L, S, WP | BO, EX, PW | 8, 78, 114 |
236 | Ranunculus muricatus | 15 | ||
Rhamnaceae | ||||
237 | Ziziphus jujuba | FR, L, WP | CH, DE, EX, PW | 8, 17, 35, 79, 115 |
238 | Ziziphus nummularia | FR, L, R, S, ST-B | DE, EF, PW | 8, 116, 120 |
239 | Ziziphus oxyphylla | L, R | DE, EX | 7, 117, 118, 119 |
240 | Ziziphus spinosa | L | 8, 14 | |
Rosaceae | ||||
241 | Fragaria indica | WP | PW | 8 |
242 | Fragaria nubicola | FR | 11 | |
243 | Prunus dulcis | FR, L | 8 | |
244 | Prunus persica | FR | EF | 8, 11 |
245 | Malus domestica | FR-J | 8 | |
246 | Rosa x damascena | S | PW | 8 |
247 | Rubus ellipticus | FR-J | 8, 69, 120 | |
Rubiaceae | ||||
248 | Spermacoce articularis | 60 | ||
Rutaceae | ||||
249 | Aegle marmelos | L | EX | 96 |
250 | Citrus limon | FR-J | 8 | |
251 | Citrus medica | FR-J | 8 | |
252 | Citrus reticulata cv. Murcott | L | CH | 37 |
253 | Zanthoxylum armatum | 60 | ||
Salicaceae | ||||
254 | Flacourtia indica | FR | EF, PL | 4, 7 |
255 | Populus alba | ST-B | DE | 60 |
256 | Salix babylonica | L | EX | 115 |
Santalaceae | ||||
257 | Viscum album | L, SH | BO, EX | 121 |
Sapindaceae | ||||
258 | Dodonaea viscosa | L, ST-B | CH, DE | 1, 2, 4, 8 |
Saxifragaceae | ||||
259 | Bergenia ciliata | R, RH | BO, PW | 7, 72, 122 |
260 | Bergenia pacumbis | RH | BO | 8, 9 |
Solanaceae | ||||
261 | Atropa belladonna | S, WP | EX | 19 |
262 | Datura innoxia | 8 | ||
263 | Solanum americanum | AP, L, ST | C, JU | 1, 8, 61, 81 |
264 | Solanum incanum | AP | AV | 2, 8, 116 |
265 | Solanum melongena | FR | C | 76 |
266 | Solanum surattense | FR | DE, DR, PW | 8, 81, 98 |
267 | Withania coagulans | FR, S | PW | 1, 2, 8, 81, 123 |
268 | Withania somnifera | L, R | DE | 6, 10, 15 |
Tamaricaceae | ||||
269 | Tamarix aphylla | FR | BO | 8 |
Thelypteridaceae | ||||
270 | Christella dentata | FO, RH | EX | 125, 127 |
Verbenaceae | ||||
271 | Lantana camara | FR, WP | DE, EX | 8, 53 |
272 | Phyla nodiflora | S | BO | 123 |
Xanthorrhoeaceae | ||||
273 | Aloe vera | L | PL | 2, 6, 18, 52, 124 |
274 | Asphodelus tenuifolius | 14 | ||
Zingiberaceae | ||||
275 | Elettaria cardamomum | S | PW | 2 |
Zygophyllaceae | ||||
276 | Balanites aegyptiaca | FR | EX | 96 |
277 | Fagonia bruguieri | WP | IN | 33 |
278 | Fagonia cretica | WP | EX | 35, 116 |
279 | Fagonia indica | AP, L, ST, WP | EX | 2, 81, 89 |
280 | Fagonia olivieri | SH | EX | 98 |
281 | Tribulus pentandrus | 14 |
Appendix 3: Medicinal Plants Used for the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Malaysia
No | Family/taxa | Part used | Preparation | Resourcesa |
|---|---|---|---|---|
Acanthaceae | ||||
1 | Acanthus ilicifolius | FR | PN | 1 |
2 | Andrographis paniculata | AP, L, R, ST, WP | DE, EX, IN, R | 1–7 |
3 | Barleria lupulina | AP | EX | 2 |
4 | Clinacanthus nutans | L | 8 | |
5 | Strobilanthes crispus | L | EX | 2, 3 |
Amaryllidaceae | ||||
6 | Allium cepa | B | JU | 2 |
7 | Allium sativum | B | JU | 2, 3 |
Anacardiaceae | ||||
8 | Anacardium occidentale | L, S | EX | 2, 6 |
9 | Mangifera indica | L | EX | 2 |
Annonaceae | ||||
10 | Annona muricata | FR-J | 5 | |
11 | Annona squamosa | L | 3 | |
12 | Polyalthia bullata | FL, L, R | DE, PN | 1, 7, 9 |
Apiaceae | ||||
13 | Centella asiatica | L, ST | DE | 1 |
14 | Coriandrum sativum | S | PW | 2, 3 |
Apocynaceae | ||||
15 | Catharanthus roseus | L, R, WP | DE, EX | 2–4 |
Arecaceae | ||||
16 | Nypa fruticans | FR | DR | 1 |
17 | Sanguis draxonis | 2 | ||
Asteraceae | ||||
18 | Cosmos caudatus | FL, L | 6 | |
19 | Gynura procumbens | L | EF | 5, 6 |
Blechnaceae | ||||
20 | Stenochlaena palustris | FO | C | 1 |
Bromeliaceae | ||||
21 | Ananas comosus | L | EX | 2 |
Cactaceae | ||||
22 | Hylocereus lemairei | FR | EF | 2 |
23 | Pereskia bleo | L | DE | 1 |
Combretaceae | ||||
24 | Terminalia catappa | FR | BO, EX | 2, 3 |
25 | Terminalia chebula | FR | EX | 2 |
Connaraceae | ||||
26 | Cnestis sp. | R, ST | DE | 1, 7 |
27 | Cnestis palala | R | DE | 12 |
Convolvulaceae | ||||
28 | Ipomea batatas | L | 2 | |
Crassulaceae | ||||
29 | Bryophyllum pinnatum | L | BO | 3 |
Cucurbitaceae | ||||
30 | Momordica charantia | FR, FR-J | AV, BO, EF, EX, R | 1–3, 9, 11 |
Dilleniaceae | ||||
31 | Tetracera indica | R | DE | 1 |
Fabaceae | ||||
32 | Archidendron bubalinum | R, S | DE, R | 1 |
33 | Archidendron jiringa | R, S | DE, EF, R | 1, 4, 7 |
34 | Leucaena leucocephala | R | DE | 1 |
35 | Mimosa pudica | L | EX | 2 |
36 | Parkia speciosa | FR, R, S | BO, DE, EF, EX, R | 1–3, 5, 7, 11–13 |
37 | Pongamia pinnata | FL | EX | 2 |
38 | Sindora coriacea | FR | DE | 9 |
39 | Sindora wallichii | FR | DE | 9 |
Lamiaceae | ||||
40 | Orthosiphon aristatus | L | DE | 1, 5, 13 |
41 | Orthosiphon stamineus | L | 6 | |
Lythraceae | ||||
42 | Lagerstroemia speciosa | L | 2 | |
43 | Punica granatum | FL | BO | 3 |
Malvaceae | ||||
44 | Ceiba pentandra | ST-B | EX | 2, 3 |
45 | Durio zibethinus | R | DE | 1, 7 |
46 | Hibiscus rosa-sinensis | FL | EX | 2 |
47 | Theobroma cacao | EX | 2 | |
Menispermaceae | ||||
48 | Tinospora crispa | ST | DE, EX | 1, 2, 14 |
Moraceae | ||||
49 | Ficus deltoidea | L, R | 6 | |
Muntingiaceae | ||||
50 | Muntingia calabura | L | DE | 1, 7 |
Myrtaceae | ||||
51 | Psidium guajava | SH | BO, EF | 3 |
Oleaceae | ||||
52 | Jasminum sambac | R | BO, IN | 14 |
Ophioglossaceae | ||||
53 | Helminthostachys zeylanica | R | DE | 10 |
Oxalidaceae | ||||
54 | Averrhoa bilimbi | FR-J, L | BO, DE | 3–5, 9, 11 |
55 | Averrhoa carambola | L, R | DE, DR | 1, 7 |
Pandanaceae | ||||
56 | Pandanus amaryllifolius | R | EX | 2 |
Phyllanthaceae | ||||
57 | Bridelia stipularis | R | PN | 15 |
58 | Phyllanthus acidus | L | DE | 5 |
59 | Phyllanthus amarus | L, S | BO, DE | 1, 3 |
60 | Phyllanthus niruri | L | 6 | |
Piperaceae | ||||
61 | Piper betle | L | EX | 2 |
62 | Piper sarmentosum | L, R | DE | 5, 6 |
Plantaginaceae | ||||
63 | Plantago major | L, R, WP | BO, DE | 9, 16, 17 |
Poaceae | ||||
64 | Imperata cylindrica | R | DE | 1 |
Ranunculaceae | ||||
65 | Nigella sativa | S | 3 | |
Rubiaceae | ||||
66 | Morinda citrifolia | FR, L | BO, DE, EF | 1, 3, 4, 9 |
Rutaceae | ||||
67 | Murraya koenigii | FR, L | EX | 2 |
Simaroubaceae | ||||
68 | Eurycoma longifolia | R, ST | BO, DE | 1, 3, 7 |
Smilacaceae | ||||
69 | Smilax myosotiflora | T | DE | 1 |
Solanaceae | ||||
70 | Physalis minima | FR, L, R | DE | 17 |
Urticaceae | ||||
71 | Leucosyke capitellata | L | DE | 17 |
Vitaceae | ||||
72 | Leea indica | L | DE | 10 |
Xanthorrhoeaceae | ||||
73 | Aloe vera | L | 18 | |
Zingiberaceae | ||||
74 | Alpinia galanga | RH | EX, PW | 2 |
75 | Curcuma longa | RH | BO, PW | 3 |
76 | Zingiber officinale | 19 |
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Ozturk, M. et al. (2018). A Comparative Analysis of the Medicinal Plants Used for Diabetes Mellitus in the Traditional Medicine in Turkey, Pakistan, and Malaysia. In: Ozturk, M., Hakeem, K. (eds) Plant and Human Health, Volume 1. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93997-1_11
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