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History, Genealogy, and Gerald of Wales: Medieval Theories of Ethnicity and Their Afterlives

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The Black Middle Ages

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Abstract

This chapter proceeds with a consideration of a set of medieval texts that raise questions about how the Middle Ages were being constructed and mythologized within the period itself. This chapter provides a vital counterpart to the argument constructed over Chaps. 2 and 3 that are premised upon finding latent ambiguities and ambivalences within medieval narratives. In this chapter Vernon discusses how post-colonial readings can critically intervene into interpretations of Gerald of Wales’ The History and Topography of Ireland and The Conquest of Ireland. This reading foregrounds the flexibility inherent within Geoffrey’s text. The History of the Kings of Britain was not just popular in its own time, the descriptions of Arthur and his linkage between the progress of history and genealogy would form the basis of many later iterations of the Arthurian legend. The most significant of these would be those produced by Sir Walter Scott, who was a vital conduit for American medievalisms throughout the nineteenth century.

Calling for more complex responses than the squeamishness evident in contemporary distaste for enlightened discussions of “race,” these discomforting writings communicate ways that the consolidation of modern raciology required enlightenment and myth to be intertwined. Indeed, they reveal theories of culture, “race” and nation as supplying the logic and mechanism of their dangerous interconnection.

Paul Gilroy, Between Camps: Nations, Cultures and the Allure of Race, 2nd edition (New York: Routledge, 2004), 59.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Indeed, Gerald is discussed extensively in a book bearing a similar title. See: Robert Bartlett, “Illustrating Ethnicity in the Middle Ages,” in The Origins of Racism in the West, eds. Miriam Eliav-Feldon, Benjamin Isaac, and Joseph Ziegler (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 132–156.

  2. 2.

    Giraldus Cambrensis, De Rebus A Se Gestis in Giraldi Cambrensis Opera, vol. 1 ed. J. S. Brewer (1867; Reprint, London: Rolls Series, 1964), xii, xvii.

  3. 3.

    Michael Richter, Giraldus Cambrensis: The Growth of the Welsh Nation, 2nd edition (Abersteyth: The National Library of Wales, 1976).

  4. 4.

    Richter, 5.

  5. 5.

    Bartlett uses this example to illustrate the problems of seeking a singular criterion for describing difference across shifting social situations. Robert Bartlett, Gerald of Wales, 1146–1223 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), 13.

  6. 6.

    See: Max Lieberman, The Medieval March of Wales: The Creation and Perception of a Frontier, 1066–1283 (Cambridge University Press, 2010), 5–22.

  7. 7.

    Michael A. Faletra, Wales and the Medieval Colonial Imagination: The Matters of Britain in the Twelfth Century (New York: Palgrave, 2014), 135. See: Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, “Hybrids, Monsters, Borderlands: The Bodies of Gerald of Wales,” in The Postcolonial Middle Ages, ed. Jeffrey Jerome Cohen (New York: Palgrave, 2000), 85–104. See also Shirin A. Khanmohamadi, In Light of Another’s Word: European Ethnography in the Middle Ages (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2014), 37–56.

  8. 8.

    In Light of Another’s Word, 46.

  9. 9.

    Robin D. G. Kelley, “Foreword,” in Cedric Robinson, Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition, 2nd edition (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000), xiii.

  10. 10.

    Robinson, 2.

  11. 11.

    Black Marxism, 4.

  12. 12.

    Ibid., 22; Dale W. Tomich, Through the Prism of Slavery: Labor, Capital and the World Economy (New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2004), xi.

  13. 13.

    In Light of Another’s Word, 37–38; Andrew Hadfield, Edmund Spenser’s Irish Experience: Wild Fruit and Salvage Soyl (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 93.

  14. 14.

    Edmund Burke, Pre-Revolutionary Writing, ed. Ian Harris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 99.

  15. 15.

    Seán Donlan, “The ‘Genuine Voice of Its Records and Monuments’?: Edmund Burke’s ‘Interior History of Ireland,’” in Edmund Burke’s Irish Identities, ed. Patrick Donlan (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2007), 76.

  16. 16.

    Ibid., 72.

  17. 17.

    Ibid.

  18. 18.

    This comment gains a curious layer of additional meaning when it is compared to his “Sketch of a Negro Code” in which he voices concern that slaves should not be given their immediate freedom, but gradually given rights because “the minds of men, being crippled with that restraint [of slavery], can do nothing for themselves.” Edmund Burke, The Writing and Speeches of Edmund Burke, eds. T.O. McLoughlin and James T. Boulton (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997), 382; “Sketch of a Negro Code,” in The Portable Edmund Burke, ed. Isaac Kramnick (New York: Penguin Books, 1999), 185.

  19. 19.

    An example of a text that uses these rough historical boundaries is Noel Ignatiev’s How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995).

  20. 20.

    For a discussion of labor conditions in New York preceding the Draft Riots see Iver Bernstein’s chapter, “Workers and Consolidation,” in The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), 74–124.

  21. 21.

    Michel Foucault, “Society Must Be Defended”: Lectures at the Collège de France 1975–1976, eds. Mauro Bertani and Alessandreo Fontana (New York: Picador, 2003), 256.

  22. 22.

    Foucault identifies the late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century as the period in which the institutions that mobilized this power developed. This would put Edmund Burke’s life squarely at the center of his argument.

  23. 23.

    Richard Bourke, “Edmund Burke and the Politics of Conquest,” Modern Intellectual History 4.3 (November 2007), 429.

  24. 24.

    See Matthew Pratt Guterl’s argument about the shifting alliances between and significations of race in The Color of Race in America: 1900–1940 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001).

  25. 25.

    Ignatiev discusses Irish and African-American neighborhoods and that the characters of Jim Crow, Jim Dandy, Pat, and Bridget (the latter two were Irish caricatures) shared the same stage in American theater: How the Irish Became White (New York: Routledge, 1995), 2: 178.

  26. 26.

    Frederick Douglass, “Speech at the American Anti-Slavery Society in New York City (1853),” in The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (Park Publishing: Hartford, 1881), 303.

  27. 27.

    Joseph Lennon, Irish Orientalism: A Literary and Intellectual History (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2008), 135.

  28. 28.

    Donlan, 76.

  29. 29.

    All Latin versions of Gerald’s De Rebus A Se Gestis appear in Giraldus Cambrensis, Giraldi Cambrensis Opera, vol. 1 ed. J. F. Dimock, (1867; Reprint, London: Rolls, 1964). I use the Butler’s translations in Gerald of Wales, The Autobiography of Giraldus Cambrensis, 2nd edition, ed. and trans. H. E. Butler (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005). De Rebus A Se Gestis, 65; Autobiography, 90.

  30. 30.

    Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 2nd edition (New York: Grove Press, 2004), 160.

  31. 31.

    All Latin versions of Gerald’s Itinerarium Kambriae and Descripto Kambriae appear in Giraldi Cambrensis: Opera, vol. VI. ed. J. F. Dimock (1867; Reprint, London: Rolls, 1964). Translations appear in Gerald of Wales, The Journey through Wales and The Description of Wales, trans. Lewis Thorpe (New York: Penguin, 1978). See: Itinerarium Kambriae et Descripto Kambriae, 58, The Journey through Wales and The Description of Wales, 117–118.

  32. 32.

    William uses the phrase “effrenata mentiendi libidne.” William of Newburgh, The History of English Affairs: Book 1, eds. and trans. P.G. Walsh and M.J. Kennedy (Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2015), 32.

  33. 33.

    See, for example, Gabrielle M. Spiegel’s essay “Genealogy: Form and Function in Medieval Historical Narrative,” History and Theory 22.1 (1983): 43–53. Although she stages an important intervention into the nature of medieval historiography, she uses this quotation merely as an aside.

  34. 34.

    The Journey through Wales and the Description of Wales, 232.

  35. 35.

    All Latin versions and translations of Gerald’s Expugnatio Hibernica appear in Giraldus Cambrensis, Expugnatio Hibernica: The Conquest of Ireland, eds. and trans. A.B. Scott and F.X. Martin (Dublin: Royal Irish Academy, 1978), 4–5.

  36. 36.

    Ibid.; Asa Simon Mittman, “The Other Close at Hand: Gerald of Wales and the ‘Marvels of the West,’” The Monstrous Middle Ages, eds. Bettina Bildhauer and Robert Mills (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2003), 101.

  37. 37.

    This is the argument that Bartlett makes about the terms of medieval categorization Gerald deploys. Robert Bartlett, The Making of Europe: Conquest Colonization, and Cultural Change, 950–1350 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), 197.

  38. 38.

    All Latin versions of Gerald’s Topographia Hibernica appear in Giraldi Cambrensis: Opera, Vol V. ed. J. F. Dimock (1867; Reprint, London: Rolls, 1964). Translations appear in Gerald of Wales, The History and Topography of Ireland, 2nd edition, trans. John O’Meara (New York: Penguin, 1982). Topographia Hibernica, 175.

  39. 39.

    The Wretched of the Earth, 7.

  40. 40.

    Fanon’s anti-colonial critique pre-dated the emergence of World Systems Theory and the Dependency School’s critiques of Modernization Theory.

  41. 41.

    Amelia Borrego Sargent, “Gerald of Wales’s Topographia Hibernica: Dates, Versions, Readers,” Viator 43.1 (2012), 241.

  42. 42.

    See Robert Bartlett’s discussion of the developments in Gerald’s approach to the Topographia in Gerald of Wales 1146–1223, 104–116.

  43. 43.

    Expugnatio Hibernica, 2, 3.

  44. 44.

    I borrow this phrase from: Matthew Kempshall, Rhetoric and the Writing of History: 400–1500 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 185.

  45. 45.

    Expugnatio Hibernica, 8–9.

  46. 46.

    Gerald of Wales 1146–1223, 61.

  47. 47.

    Jeffrey Jerome Cohen, “Hybrids, Monsters, Borderlands: The Bodies of Gerald of Wales,” in The Postcolonial Middle Ages, ed. Jeffrey Jerome Cohen (New York: Palgrave, 2000), 87.

  48. 48.

    See in particular: C. Rooney, “The Manuscripts of the Works of Gerald of Wales” (Ph.D. diss., University of Cambridge University, 2005); Amelia Borrego Sargent’s “Gerald of Wales’s Topographia Hibernica: Dates, Versions, Readers”.

  49. 49.

    Patricia Clare Ingham and Michelle R. Warren, “Postcolonial Modernity and the Rest of History,” in Postcolonial Moves: Medieval through Modern, eds. Patricia Clare Ingham and Michelle R. Warren (New York: Palgrave, 2003), 3.

  50. 50.

    David Scott, Conscripts of Modernity: The Tragedy of Colonial Enlightenment (Durham: Duke University Press, 2004), 7.

  51. 51.

    Michel Foucault, “Nietzsche, Genealogy, History,” in The Foucault Reader, ed. Paul Rabinow (New York: Pantheon Books, 1984), 76.

  52. 52.

    Gerald was by no means the only writer during the twelfth and thirteenth century to struggle within the umbra of The History of the Kings of Britain. William of Newburgh, William of Malmesbury, Walter Map, Wace, and Layamon found themselves confronting the legacy of Geoffrey, either directly through disparagements of Geoffrey’s fidelity as a historian or obliquely through stylistic borrowings or adaptations of his work. These responses redound to Geoffrey’s place as a progenitor of twelfth and thirteenth century medieval “historical” writing.

  53. 53.

    The Latin text for Geoffrey of Monmouth’s The History of the Kings of Britain is found in Neil Wright’s edition of the Bern manuscript: The Historia Regum Britannie of Geoffrey of Monmouth I: Bern, Burgerbibliothek, MS. 568, ed. Neil Wright (Cambridge: D.S. Brewer, 1984). English translations are from Micheal Faletra’s edition of the text unless otherwise noted. Geoffrey of Monmouth, The History of the Kings of Britain, trans. Michael A. Faletra (Toronto: Broadview, 2008). The Historia Regum Britannie, 1; The History of the Kings of Britain, 41.

  54. 54.

    Faletra, 41.

  55. 55.

    Martin B. Shichtman and Laurie A. Finke. “Profiting from the Past: History as Symbolic Capital in the Historia Regum Britanniae,” Arthurian Literature XII (1994), 8.

  56. 56.

    Siân Echard, Arthurian Narrative in the Latin Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 34.

  57. 57.

    The Historia Regum Britannie, 115; The History of the Kings of Britain, 180.

  58. 58.

    Geraldine Heng, Empire of Magic: Medieval Romance and the Politics of Cultural Fantasy (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), 35.

  59. 59.

    The Historia Regum Britannie, 114; The History of the Kings of Britain, 178.

  60. 60.

    Ibid.

  61. 61.

    In her book, Predatory Kinship and the Creation of Norman Power, 840–1066, Eleanor Searle describes the concept of fictional kinship during the Norman period, in which fictional connections—even fictional stories about ancestors—were created to strengthen one’s genealogical pedigree. Predatory Kinship and the Creation of Norman Power, 840–1066 (Berkley: University of California Press, 1988).

  62. 62.

    Here I borrow a phrase from Joseph Roach’s Cities of the Dead (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 109.

  63. 63.

    The History of the Kings of Britain, 196.

  64. 64.

    Michelle Warren, “Making Contact: Postcolonial Perspectives through Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Historia Regum Britannie,” Arthuriana 8.4 (1998), 108.

  65. 65.

    See the review of the many and varied medieval and modern reactions to Geoffrey’s work in Valerie I. J. Flint’s “The Historia Regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth and Its Purpose. A Suggestion,” Speculum 54.3 (July, 1979), 447–468.

  66. 66.

    Rhetoric and the Writing of History, 400–1500, 366.

  67. 67.

    The History of English Affairs, 32.

  68. 68.

    Valerie Flint lays out the history of this claim in: “The Historia Regum Britanniae of Geoffrey of Monmouth: Parody and its Purpose. A Suggestion”.

  69. 69.

    Sovereign Fantasies, 33.

  70. 70.

    See Bloom’s argument about clinamen, or poetic misprision: Harold Bloom, The Anxiety of Influence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 14.

  71. 71.

    Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, 149.

  72. 72.

    Gerald of Wales, De Invectionibus, Lib. IV, ed. J.S. Brewer (Rolls Series, 1863, 1966), 15; The Autobiography of Giraldus Cambrensis, 169.

  73. 73.

    The Wretched of the Earth, 2.

  74. 74.

    Topographica Hibernica, 165; The History and Topography of Ireland, 106. It is important to note that Gerald includes the entire sermon, of which he only extracts an excerpt, in his Autobiography. This heightens the connection between his comments about the Irish and his evaluation of himself. The Autobiography of Gerald of Wales, 94.

  75. 75.

    Gerald anticipates Mandeville’s depiction of the East as a place outside of secular and religious history. On Mandeville’s curious intolerance, see: Stephen Greenblatt, Marvelous Possessions: The Wonder of the New World (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1991), 50.

  76. 76.

    Autobiography, 91

  77. 77.

    Ibid., 92.

  78. 78.

    De Rebus A Se Gestis, 72; Ibid., 96.

  79. 79.

    Descriptio Kambriae, 213; The Description of Wales, 262.

  80. 80.

    Gerald of Wales, The Autobiography of Gerald of Wales, ed. and trans. H.E. Butler (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, 2005), 86.

  81. 81.

    Ibid., 87.

  82. 82.

    Ibid., 91.

  83. 83.

    The Historia Regum Britannie, 1; The History of the Kings of Britain, 41.

  84. 84.

    The Conquest of Ireland, 244–245.

  85. 85.

    Ibid., 246, 247.

  86. 86.

    The Chronicles of the Princes of Wales explains the matter more explicitly:

    1163. The ensuing year, when Rhys, son of Gruffudd, saw that the king fulfilled nothing of what he had promised, and that he could thus not submit honorably, he manfully entered the territory of Roger, earl of Clare, the man on whose account his nephew Einon, son of Anarawd, had been slain; and dismantled and burned the castle of Aber Rheidiol, and the castle of the son of Gwynion, and reconquered a second time the whole of Ceredigion, iterating slaughters and conflagrations among the Flemings, and taking from them man spoils. And after that, all the Welsh combined to expel the garrison of French altogether.

    Rev. John Williams Ab Ithel, ed. The Chronicles of the Princes of Wales (London: Kraus, 1860), 198.

  87. 87.

    De Rebus A Se Gestis, 58; The Autobiography of Gerald of Wales, 84.

  88. 88.

    Ibid.

  89. 89.

    Ibid.

  90. 90.

    Ibid., 85.

  91. 91.

    The Journey through Wales, 67.

  92. 92.

    De Rebus A Se Gestis, 60; Autobiography, 84.

  93. 93.

    The Conquest of Ireland, 149.

  94. 94.

    Ibid., 263.

  95. 95.

    The Conquest of Ireland, 44, 45.

  96. 96.

    Ibid., 48–49.

  97. 97.

    Ibid., 177.

  98. 98.

    Ibid., 177–178.

  99. 99.

    Ibid., 170, 171.

  100. 100.

    “Ruina precedencium posteros docet, et causio est semper in reliquum lapsus anterior.” Ibid., 250–251.

  101. 101.

    Ibid., 252–253.

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Vernon, M.X. (2018). History, Genealogy, and Gerald of Wales: Medieval Theories of Ethnicity and Their Afterlives. In: The Black Middle Ages. The New Middle Ages. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91089-5_4

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