Abstract
The voice knowledge operator is examined with three scenarios in this chapter: hesitation in the nonverbal but vocal part, language, and familiarity relationship which, then, directs to the mother tongue issue. Communication forwards to nonverbal channels with notions manifested in the responders’ replies, introducing paralanguage and hesitation as a medium of interaction. Scenarios are investigated in an interactive narrative with the implying question what would you have done and why for pilots and air traffic controllers who offer their own reading and evaluation. This question is commonly used in NASA’s ASRS, and the reader virtually interacts with the experts. Eleven responders with conventional alias names narrate their vivid insights: specialized fighter pilots (Neos Aghialos, Eleftherios Venizelos, Dimokritos Alexandroupolis), a multi-experienced helicopter commander (Ippokratis Koos), iconic civil aviation pilots (Ifaistos Limnios, Diagoras Rodios, Stan Dardman, Palios Ellinikos), a prominent accident investigator Megas Alexandros, and high-skill ATCs Ikaria Ikaros and Oia Santorinis.
Then, the Helios flight is analyzed in conjunction with nonverbal and verbal communication signals with the pair of F-16s in Renegade scramble. The hesitation scenario is used with an incomplete tower call, after a takeoff clearance was received. Language directness and familiarity scenario investigate the reasons for bypassing the standard phraseology. Interaction continues with perception, action, and confirmation. With ATC’s roles as the “eyes and ear on the ground,” concepts like pilot decision-making, explicit vs tacit knowledge, observation, and deliberate practice like “self-monitoring” are presented (among other themes). Pilot’s interpretation depends on multiple factors which assemble to “triage,” the aviation instinct, and Langewiesche’s “buoyancy.”
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- 1.
The descriptive narrative of the interplay of emotions, actions, improvisations, and operational decisions from Lt. Heather “Lucky” Penney, is a picturesque example of such communication patterns. She was one of the first two combat pilots in the air from Andrews Air Force Base in the morning of September 11, 2001, after the hijacked plane attacks in New York World Trade Center. Her recollections and sharing of the developing situation awareness , different styles of communication, small-talk, personal relations and trust even in the higher offices are compatible with the current analysis (despite of some criticism she has received). See more at the video interview http://www.c-span.org/video/?300959-1/major-heather-penney-september-11-2001 (August 11, 2011).
- 2.
Scrambling aircrafts means to get them into the air as quickly and as possible and into formation to defend, interdict, intercept, etc. In HAF quick response alerts, 2 and 5 min are typical time frames. Quite often when in scramble, there is no time for mission briefing, but just the order and rules of engagement are exchanged in the life vests room. Originally, during WWII in the Battle of Britain, scrambling aircraft was referring to immediate takeoff in order to avoid a catastrophic attack against them in the ground.
- 3.
The Helios 522 flights crashed in Greece’s mainland, so the relevant judicial took place in the company’s headquarters in Cyprus and in Greece where the tragic accident actually happened. For this study, I was able to use the judicial proceedings (from Cyprus and Greece) that are part of State Archives, after the last phase of the judicial processes in the Supreme Court on February of 2013.
- 4.
Eurocontrol’s skybrary explains that: “An autopilot is a device used to guide an aircraft without direct assistance from the pilot. Early autopilots were only able to maintain a constant heading and altitude, but modern autopilots are capable of controlling every part of the flight envelope from take-off to landing. Modern autopilots are normally integrated with the flight management system (FMS). The FMS is an on-board multipurpose navigation, performance, and aircraft operations computer designed to provide virtual data and operational harmony between closed and open elements associated with a flight from pre-engine start and takeoff, to landing and engine shut-down.” (see at http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Autopilot and http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Flight_Management_System).
- 5.
As the manufacturer, Lockheed Martin Corporation explains “the F-16 Fighting Falcon has proven itself as the world’s most capable 4th generation multi-role fighter, serving as the workhorse of the fighter fleet for 28 customers around the world, for more than 40 years with constant upgrades (4500 aircraft and 55 repeat buys have been supported).” More at http://www.lockheedmartin.com/us/products/f15.html.Scrambles are typical missions for F-16.
- 6.
The internationally established International Civil Aviation Distress Frequency to be used for Distress and Safety by Search and Rescue is 121.5 MHz (see http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Distress/Emergency_Frequencies).This flight was not responding despite the attempts as it was committed to the frequency of the departing airport, as Megas Alexandros noted.
- 7.
- 8.
VHF, stands for very high frequency, is conventionally defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum of frequencies between 300 and 30 megahertz including any radiation wavelength between 1 and 10 meters. VHF signals are usually used for television and radio transmissions. As Eurocontrol skybrary explains: “Aircraft Communications, Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) is a digital data link system for the transmission of messages between aircraft and ground stations, which has been in use since 1978. At first it relied exclusively on VHF channels but more recently, alternative means of data transmission have been added which have greatly enhanced its geographical coverage. There has also been a rapid trend towards the integration of aircraft systems with the ACARS link. Both have led to rapid growth in its use as an operational communications tool” (See more at http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Aircraft_Communications,_Addressing_and_Reporting_System). Communication frequency is crucial because it restricts the channel of signals which should be open to all airport traffic. In ICAO Doc, 9870, “Manual on the Prevention of Runway Incursions,” the provision explains: 4.2.6 “All communications associated with the operation of each runway (vehicles, crossing aircraft, etc.) should be conducted on the same frequency as utilized for the take-off and landing of aircraft.” Further details are provided in Appendix A, §1.5. (See at http://skybrary.aero/index.php/Use_of_aerodrome_Tower_VHF_frequency_by_vehicle_drivers_involved_in_runway_operations).
- 9.
Although without restrictions in the past years, female fighter pilots are in the margin of 5% in HAF. The intensity of training and lifestyle, the family-oriented society, and the national exam competition to enroll to the Hellenic Air Force Academy are (among others) factors that have contributed to such numbers. Thus, the use of grammatical masculine gender pronouns, for fighter pilots, is not considered discriminatory. It is indicative that the popular drama series of the Greek Mega TV “Silence in the Air” (Anosis SA, 2000) featured two airwomen characters in military duty: an air traffic controller and the chief engineer.
- 10.
It comes from the NASA’s ASRS Callback report, issue 395, January 2013, available at http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov/publications/callback/cb_395.html: situation from Boeing 737 Pilot’s Report.
- 11.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization is an alliance founded after World War II. As quoted, at present, NATO has 29 members. In 1949, there were 12 founding members of the alliance: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the UK, and the USA. The other member countries are Greece and Turkey (1952); Germany (1955); Spain (1982); the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland (1999); Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia (2004); Albania and Croatia (2009); and Montenegro (2017). For more information see https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_52044.htm?
- 12.
In the flight US1549 (Accident Report, http://www.ntsb.gov/doclib/reports/2010/aar1003.pdf, Jan 15, 2009), a critical interaction was NY TRACON: “Alright cactus 1549. It’s going to be a left. Traffic to runway 3–0.1” US1549 (replies): “Unable.” A simple non-explanatory and clear-cut word conveyed the dramatic situation.
- 13.
The Airports Council International (ACI) evaluates over 450 airports in 44 European countries (http://www.aci.aero/) and granted the 2014 award, in the “10–25 million passenger” category, to Athens International Airport “Eleftherios Venizelos”(http://www.aia.gr/traveler/). Athens secured this award due to its high economic performance in a very challenging context, its excellent work in redeveloping its traffic base while keeping a strong focus on the quality of service. The top-rated accomplishment sustains its position in the following years.
- 14.
[Buoyancy is] perhaps the most hard-to-get-at skill in the whole art of flying - the sensing of ‘lift,’ the gauging of the firmness of one’s sustentation, the ‘feel’ a pilot must have for his ship’s angle of attack, the ability to know how close the ship is to the stalled condition: This is what pilots used to call the flying instinct (a Langewiesche description).
- 15.
It is interesting that the EU Performance Scheme (Com.Reg. N° 691/2010) for the period 2012–2014 introduced reference goals for cost-efficiency, capacity, and environment. Safety was not included in the first reference period but in the second reference period (beyond 2014). Most likely, because Eurocontrol aimed to document the utility and benefits of the policy for transborder ATC and not because it is underestimated. See more at http://ec.europa.eu/transport/modes/air/single_european_sky/ses_2_en.htm (and in Chap. 5).
- 16.
Refers to the NTSB Accident Report on the Avianca (Airline of Columbia Flight), Boeing 707-321B, HK2016 due to fuel exhaustion, January 15, 1990. Crew language proficiency was identified as a contributing factor in the accident, as priority status was not confirmed. See more at http://www.airdisaster.com/reports/ntsb/AAR91-04.pdf
- 17.
FAA describes the requirement in the “Aeronautical Information Manual/Section 4–1-4: Recording and Monitoring,” April 3, 2014 (p. 4–1-1 at http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/media/AIM_Basic_4-03-14.pdf. ICAO “Procedures for Air Navigation Services/ATM”, Doc444, ATM 501, 15th Edn, Nov 22, 2007, has similar provisions.
- 18.
The brain, spinal cord, and nerves make up the nervous system. Together they control all the workings of the body. When something goes wrong with a part of your nervous system, you can have trouble moving, speaking, swallowing, breathing, or learning. Someone can also have problems with memory, senses, or mood (more at National Library of Medicine at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/neurologicdiseases.html).
- 19.
That kind of complexity is eloquently described in the Time Magazine 2014 article on the “Cancellator,” i.e., a flight information system they operate when they need to decide “which flies, where” after repeated cancellations due to harsh weather conditions. The multiplicity of parameters requires the use of “heuristics” as working solutions and not only rule-based criteria. See more at http://time.com/8703/fourth-of-july-flight-cancelllation/.
- 20.
Of course, the departure point of contact is not underestimated, since several of the parameters and handling are decided and done at takeoff and are decisive about the next phase of the flight. In the case of the ghost plane Helios 522 , the manual switch position, the master caution alarm, and the radio frequency set to Larnaca (among other variables) were determinants of the tragedy. The reenactment flight supported the validity of those conclusions from the HAAISB report.
- 21.
Eurocontrol’s skybrary explains in an enhancing safety chapter (boldface added to show the ATC involvement and the importance of the visual channel): the Airborne Collision Avoidance System II (ACAS II) was introduced in order to reduce the risk of mid-air collisions or near mid-air collisions between aircraft. It serves as a last-resort safety net irrespective of any separation standards. ACAS II is an aircraft system based on Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transponder signals. ACAS II interrogates the Mode C and Mode S transponders of nearby aircraft (‘intruders’) and from the replies tracks their altitude and range and issues alerts to the pilots, as appropriate. Non-transponding aircraft are not detected. ACAS II works independently of the aircraft navigation, flight management systems, and Air Traffic Control (ATC) ground systems. While assessing threats it does not take into account the ATC clearance, pilot’s intentions or autopilot input s.Two types of alert can be issued by ACAS II - TA (Traffic Advisory) and RA (Resolution Advisory). The former is intended to assist the pilot in the visual acquisition of the conflicting aircraft and prepare the pilot for a potential RA.If a risk of collision is established by ACAS II, an RA will be generated. Broadly speaking, RAs tell the pilot the range of vertical speed at which the aircraft should be flown to avoid the threat aircraft. The visual indication of these rates is shown on the flight instruments . It is accompanied by an audible message indicating the intention of the RA. A “Clear of Conflict” message will be generated when the aircraft diverge horizontally.
- 22.
Indicative cases are the Japan Airlines near-miss incident (2001); the Überlingen midair collision, between a Boeing 757 and a Tupolev Tu-154 (2002); and the Gol Flight 1907 collision with an Embraer Legacy 600 (2006).
- 23.
Air traffic control standard international practice is to monitor airspace using two radar systems: primary and secondary. Primary detects and measures the approximate position of aircraft using reflected radio signals. It does this whether or not the subject wants to be tracked. Secondary radar, which relies on targets being equipped with a transponder, also requests additional information from the aircraft – such as its identity and altitude. All commercial aircraft are equipped with transponders (an abbreviation of “transmitter responder”), which automatically transmit a unique four-digit code when they receive a radio signal sent by radar. The code gives the plane’s identity, and radar stations go on to establish speed and direction by monitoring successive transmissions. This flight data is then relayed to air traffic controllers. However, once an aircraft is more than 240 km (150 miles) out to sea, radar coverage fades, and air crew keep in touch with air traffic control and other aircraft using high-frequency radio. A comprehensive description from BBC news at http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-26544554.
- 24.
Black box flight recorders usually comprise two individual boxes: the cockpit voice recorder (CVR) and the flight data recorder (FDR). Popularly known as “black boxes,” these flight recorders are in fact painted orange to help in their recovery following an accident. The CVR would be better named the “cockpit audio recorder” as it provides far more than just the voices of the pilots. In fact, it creates a record of the total audio environment in the cockpit area. This includes crew conversation, radio transmissions, aural alarms, control movements, switch activations, engine noise, and airflow noise. Older CVRs retain the last 30 minutes of an aircraft’s flight. A modern CVR retains the last 2 hours of information. The newest data records over the oldest data (endless-loop principle).The FDR records flight parameters: pressure altitude, indicated airspeed, magnetic heading, normal acceleration, microphone keying, etc. Microphone keying (the time radio transmissions were made by the crew) is recorded to correlate FDR data with CVR information. The FDR retains the last 25 hours of aircraft operation and, like the CVR, operates on the endless-loop principle. As FDRs have a longer recording duration than CVRs, they are very useful for investigating incidents and accidents. Material (boldface highlight the recording memory storage) from the Australian Transport Safety Bureau at http://www.atsb.gov.au/publications/2014/black-box-flight-recorders.aspx.
- 25.
There is a full collection of definitions on the verb in Encyclopedia Britannica’s Merriam Webster’s dictionary, particularly in the transitive and intransitive form at http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hold?show=0&t=1409498055
- 26.
The ambiguity of the verb “hold” contributed to the accident of Air California Flight 336 Boeing 737 –293, N468 AC, John Wayne Orange County Airport, Santa Ana, California, February 17, 1981 (NTSB/AAR-81–12). The airplane landed with gear up when attempting to execute a go – around to avoid an airplane on the runway. See more at http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-reports/AAR81-12.pdf.
- 27.
The “party line” refers to the open radio channel through which all aircraft in a given airspace communicate with air traffic control (ATC) , a system that allows pilots to hear both their own clearances and those of the other aircraft. The downside of that is that it increases the workload of pilot functions and multitasking.
- 28.
It is indicative that in the Malaysian Airlines Flight 370 from Kuala Lumpur to Beijing that disappeared on March 8, 2014, the phrase that was released from the Malaysian authorities was a sign-off “All right, good night” from the cockpit to the controllers; later it was retracted as “Good night Malaysian three seven zero.” The formality difference (use of call sign with a greeting and no confirmation) of the two greetings has raised additional questions (e.g., is it a deliberate transmission or not, who is speaking from the cabin, is it a farewell for the flight, etc.) in a case that is still missing, and international investigation was suspended. After a formal request from Malaysia, the Australian Transportation Security Board is leading the search of MH370 in vast areas of the Indian Ocean, although under suspension (More at http://www.atsb.gov.au/mh370.aspx/).
- 29.
To add a personal experience in the air traffic control gender discussion, after the first month in my duty in NSA Souda Bay, I have noticed that two Navy women were in night tower operation shifts (from 7:00 pm till 7:00 am in the next day) quite more frequently than that men. I have also noticed that in several emergency landings, the base operations office was asking those two operation controllers to take the microphone. It turned out (after several discussion I had with different members of the NSA command) that the intonation and pitch for the voice of those controllers had a relaxing and mitigating impact in these extreme situation, unlike their male colleagues whose voices did not make any difference.
- 30.
Duty-is-my-career mentality was apparent in a collective but anonymous letter (from 35 fighter pilots ) which was broadcasted on May 6, 2010, on the occasion of the economic challenges in Greek society (due the economic crisis) and austerity measures and fighter pilot salaries. Their bottom line was “When we are up there flying everything down there is small and we ignore it” (in the top-rated RealFM 97.8 radio, Giorgos Tragkas, “In Athens” radio show). In another occasion, in the National Greek WWII Resistance Day celebration on October 28, 2014, the real-time message “lift the head up” from Captain Stralis the pilot of the HAF Demo Team, during the parade while on flight, stimulated the morale of the people in the Greek society and diasporas (see http://www.protothema.gr/greece/article/421894/sminagos-stralis-eipa-sikoste-to-kefali-psila-ek-merous-tis-polemikis-aeroporias/).
- 31.
An indicative case for that risk is the fatal accident in Eastern Air Lines 1011, N310EA, Miami, Florida, December 29, 1972. The autopilot was turned off, and the crew did not notice as they had a landing gear issue. The ATC concerned from the loss of altitude asked “ATC: Eastern 401—how are things coming along out there? Captain: Okay – we’d like to turn around now and come back in.” as the captain was thinking that the ATC was referring to the landing gear issue they had, just before the plane crashed. More at NTSB/AAR-73-14 report at http://libraryonline.erau.edu/online-full-text/ntsb/aircraft-accident-reports/AAR73-14.pdf
- 32.
ICAO Recommendation 5.2.1.1.2 stated that “pending the development and adoption of a more suitable form of speech for universal use in aeronautical radiotelephony communications, the English language should be used as such and should be available on request.” This recommendation remains in effect. It is notable that it is not compulsory, as a standard would be.
- 33.
A quick reference version of that document for commercial air transport pilots can be found at Eurocontrol’s skybrary at http://www.skybrary.aero/bookshelf/books/115.pdf
- 34.
McDonaldization refers to the reconceptualization of rationalization and scientific management, in the foundation of homogenization with efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. Ritzer uses the fast-food restaurant as rather representative contemporary paradigm in organizing processes. Like the Henry Ford’s pioneering concept of assembly lines in 1913, taking a task and breaking it down into smaller tasks. This is repeated until all tasks have been broken down to the smallest possible level for an efficient operation. Irrationality and other side effects of over-rationalized systems are part of criticism for Ritzer’s approach.
- 35.
Greek aviation and related phenomena consist a seminal case, in a spatial configuration with the density of more than 40 airports in a population of less than eleven million people, with thousand flights (in the busy period) per day and a high-profile Air Force. It is noteworthy that in the latest multinational air defense drill (“Blue Flag” 2017 at the Uvda Air Base, Israel) for composite Air Operations (COMAO), with fighter planes from Israel, Greece, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, India, and the USA, the Greek F-16 formations were selected to be in command of daylight and nightly missions.
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Katerinakis, T. (2019). The Voice as Knowledge Operator of Choice. In: The Social Construction of Knowledge in Mission-Critical Environments. Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge Management. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91014-7_6
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