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Domesticating the Global and Materializing the Unknown: A Study of the Album of Beasts at the Qianlong Court

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Abstract

In 1750, three projects of image-compilation were embarked upon by the court; namely, Official Tributes (Zhigong tu 職貢圖), Album of Birds (Niao pu 鳥譜), and Album of Beasts (Shou pu 獸譜). All were initiated around the same time (1750) and finished around the same time (1761), and they also share the same format and size. In contrast to the relatively well-studied Official Tributes and Album of Birds, the Album of Beasts (Shou pu 獸譜), a six-volume work containing 183 images, preserved in the Beijing Palace Museum, is almost unknown to the field. Significantly, this Album of Beasts contains a considerable amount of rewritten styles, elements, and even images from the natural history writings of Renaissance Europe, especially Renaissance Europe’s depictions about the New World.

Why were these European images of animals on a global scale incorporated into the Album of Beasts? What was the purpose and agenda behind producing this Album of Beasts, which took the Court Painting Academy and related imperial workshops a total of eleven years to accomplish? And what are the roles that the European images of animals play in shaping the album? This paper focuses both on how images and knowledge of natural history from Renaissance Europe were appropriated in the Album of Beasts, and on analyzing the implementation of new techniques, styles, and even application of colors, to explore how the original woodblock prints of European images were materialized and domesticated alongside other images of Chinese origins. This paper seeks to demonstrate how the material aspects of the global circulation of images helped Emperor Qianlong to construct his vision of the “World” and “Empire,” in dialogue with the traditional rhetorics of Chinese politics.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Pamela Kyle Crossley, A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), especially chapter 5; Laura Hostetler, Qing Colonial Enterprise (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001), 41–9.

  2. 2.

    Lai Yu-chih 賴毓芝, “Tuxiang, zhishi yu diguo: Qinggong de shihuoji tuhui 圖像、知識與帝國:清宮的食火雞圖繪 (Images, Knowledge, and Empire: Depicting Cassowaries in the Qing Court),” Gugong xueshu jikan 29, no. 2 (2011): 1–75, and its English version: Yu-chih Lai, “Images, Knowledge and Empire: Depicting Cassowaries in the Qing Court,” Transcultural Studies no. 1 (2013): 56–63; Lai Yu-chih 賴毓芝, “Tuxiang diguo: Qianlong chao Zhigong tu de zhizuo yu didu chengxian 圖像帝國: 乾隆朝《職貢圖》的製作與帝都呈現 (Picturing Empire: Illustrations of “Official Tribute” at the Qianlong Court and the Making of the Imperial Capital),” Zhongyang yanjiu yuan jindai shi yanjiu suo jikan 75 (March 2012): 1–76.

  3. 3.

    A curator at the Palace Museum in Beijing, Li Shi 李湜, is probably one of the first to have paid attention to the Album of Beasts. She organized an exhibition on “Qingdai gongting huapu zhan 清代宮廷畫譜展 (The Illustrated Albums from the Qing Court),” in which she introduced several leaves from the Album of Beasts. Later, her colleague Yuan Jie 袁杰 wrote an introductory article on the Album of Beasts in 2011. See Yuan Jie, “Gugong bowuyuan cang Qianlong shiqi ‘Shou pu’ 故宮博物院藏乾隆時期《獸譜》 (The Album of Beasts of the Qianlong period in the Palace Museum),” Wenwu 7 (2011): 65–70. The complete reproduction of the extant Album of Beasts did not come out until 2014; Yuan Jie, ed., Qinggong Shou pu 清宮獸譜 (Catalog of Animals Collected in the Qing Palace) (Beijing: Gugong bowuyuan, 2014).

  4. 4.

    The Qing imperial catalogue, Qinding Shiqu baoji xubian (欽定石渠寶笈續編), records a total of 183 kinds of animals, but only 180 are mentioned in the colophon and in the extant album. See Wang Jie 王杰, Dong Gao 董誥, and Ruan Yuan 阮元, “Yu Sheng Zhang Weibang he hua Shoupu 余省張為邦合畫獸譜 (The Album of Beasts painted jointly by Yu Shen and Zhang Weibang),” in Qinding Shiqu baoji xubian 欽定石渠寶笈續編, ed. Guoli Gugong bowuyuan (Taipei: Guoli Gugong bowuyuan, 1971), vol. 4, 1894–5.

  5. 5.

    Orig. “《獸譜》倣《鳥譜》為之, 名目形相, 蓋本諸《古今圖書集成》, 而設色則余省、張為邦奉勅摹寫者也。圖左方清漢說文。臣等承旨繕譯, 及始工藏事月日, 並與《鳥譜》同… .” Wang, Dong, and Ruan, “Yu Sheng Zhang Weibang he hua Shoupu.”

  6. 6.

    For the production of the Album of Birds, see Lai, “Tuxiang, zhishi yu diguo,” 31–6, or its English version: Lai, “Images, Knowledge and Empire,” 56–63.

  7. 7.

    See, for example, the entry on the 18th day of the tenth lunar month in the 22nd year of the Qianlong reign (1757) for the archives of the Ruyi guan (如意館) in Zaoban chu gezuo chengzuo huoji Qing dang 造辦處各作成做活計清檔 (Archives of the Workshops Governed by the Imperial Household Department) [hereafter abbreviated as Q22 (1757)/10/18, Ruyi guan]. See Zhongguo diyi lishi dang’an guan 中國第一歷史檔案館, and Xianggang zhongwen daxue wenwu guan 香港中文大學文物館, ed., Qinggong neiwu fu zaoban chu dang’an zonghui 清宮內務府造辦處檔案總匯 (The Assorted archives of the Workshops of the Imperial Household Department) (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 2005), vol. 22, 565; and the entry on Q26(1762)/10/16, Ruyi guan, in Qinggong neiwu fu zaoban chu dang’an zonghui, vol. 26, 720.

  8. 8.

    The title Zhigong tu 職貢圖 (Official Tributes) did not appear until the end of the 26th year of the Qianlong reign (1761). In the early stage of production, it had various titles, including Zhifang huilan Miao tu 職方會覽苗圖 (Assembled View of Miao Tribes) and Zhifang huilan tu 職方會覽圖 (Assembled View of Foreign Lands). See the entry on Q26 (1762)/6/14, Ruyi guan, in Qinggong neiwu fu zaoban chu dang’an zonghui, vol. 26, 708. For details on the transformation of different titles for Official Tributes, see Lai, “Tuxiang diguo,” footnote 52.

  9. 9.

    For a reconstruction of the process of its production, see Lai, “Tuxiang diguo,” 6–16.

  10. 10.

    Lai, “Tuxiang diguo,” 6–16.

  11. 11.

    Wang, Dong, and Ruan, “Yu Sheng Zhang Weibang he hua Shoupu,” 1894–5.

  12. 12.

    Orig. “郭璞《山海經注》務探隱怪, 西京上林獸簿之徒誇羅致, 所能彷彿哉.” See Wang, Dong, and Ruan, “Yu Sheng Zhang Weibang he hua Shoupu,” 1894–5.

  13. 13.

    Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 44–5 and 60–1.

  14. 14.

    For the imperial poem written by the Qianlong emperor, see “She pi 射羆 (Shooting a pi),” in Yuzhi shiji erji 御製詩集二集, juan 52, 6b, as in Jingyin Wenyuange Siku quanshu 景印文淵閣四庫全書 (The Wenyuange Edition of the Complete Collection of the Imperial Four Treasuries) (Taipei: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1983–1986), vol. 1304, 96. For the officials’ poems rhymed with the imperial poem on this event, see the ones by Wang Youdun 汪由敦 (1692–1758) and Liu Lun 劉綸 (1711–1773), collected in A Gui 阿桂, and Liu Jinzhi 劉謹之, “Qinding Shengjing tongzhi 欽定盛京通志 (Imperial Shengjing Gazetteer),” Jingyin Wenyuange Siku quanshu 503: 489–90. Also see the text on the leaf for a “Pi” in volume one, Album of Beasts, Palace Museum, Beijing, in Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 44.

  15. 15.

    Orig. “惟經言狀如麋, 圖因之而誤。洵夫志怪難徵, 百聞故不如一見乎.” Eighteenth leaf in volume one of Album of Beasts, Palace Museum, Beijing, in Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 44.

  16. 16.

    See the twenty-ninth leaf of volume two and the first leaf of volume three, respectively, in the Album of Beasts, Palace Museum, Beijing, in Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 148–9 and 154–5.

  17. 17.

    Orig. “天驥呈材, 所以彰歸德徠遠之盛.” Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 148.

  18. 18.

    Orig. “又豈陽皋所能窺測哉.” Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 148.

  19. 19.

    Orig. “回部向化底貢, 而圖天驥之材.” Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 407.

  20. 20.

    Orig. “其序自瑞獸至異國獸.” Wang, Dong, and Ruan, “Yu Sheng Zhang Weibang he hua Shoupu,” 1894–5.

  21. 21.

    There are many studies on Verbiest’s map. Just to name a few, for example, see Gang Song and Paola Demattè, “Mapping an Acentric World: Ferdinand Verbiest’s Kunyu Quantu,” in China on Paper: European and Chinese Works from the Late Sixteenth to the Early Nineteenth Century, ed. Marcia Reed and Paola Demattè (Los Angeles: The Getty Research Institute, 2007), 71–87; Wang Qianjin 汪前進, “Nan Huairen Kunyu quantu yanjiu 南懷仁坤輿全圖研究 (The Study on Ferdinand Verbiest’s Kunyu quantu),” in Zhongguo gudai ditu ji 中國古代地圖集, ed. Cao Wanru 曹婉如 (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1997), 102–7; Tongyang Lin, “Ferdinand Verbiest’s Contribution to Chinese Geography and Cartography,” in Ferdinand Verbiest S. J.: Jesuit Missionary, Scientist, Engineer and Diplomat, 1623–1688, ed. John W. Witek (Nettetal: Steyler Verlag, 1994), 134–64; Hartmut Walravens, “Father Verbiest’s Chinese World Map (1674),” Imago Mundi 43, no. 1 (1991): 31–47; Christine Vertente, “Nan Huai-jen’s Maps of the World,” in Nan Huairen shishi sanbai zhounian guoji xueshu taolun hui lunwenji 南懷仁逝世三百周年國際學術討論會論文集, ed. Furen daxue 輔仁大學 (Taipei: Furen daxue, 1987), 225–31; Lin Dongyang 林東陽, “Nan Huairen de shijie ditu: Kunyu quantu (1674) 南懷仁的世界地圖: 坤輿全圖 (1674) (Ferdinand Verbiest’s world map: Kunyu quantu),” Donghai daxue lishi xuebao 5 (1982): 69–84.

  22. 22.

    For the relationship between the Illustrated Explanations of the Entire World and Complete Map of the World, see Ayusawa Shintarō 鮎澤信太郎, “Nan Kaizin no Konyo zusetsu to Konyo geki ni tsuite: tokuni Edo jidai no seikai chirigaku shijō ni okeru 南懷仁の坤輿圖說と坤輿外記に就いて:特に江戶時代の世界地理學史上に於ける (On Ferdinand Verbiest’s Kunyu tushuo and Kunyu waiji, Especially in the Context of the World Geography History in the Edo period),” Chikyū 26, no. 6 (1937): 26–33; Ayusawa Shintarō, “Nan Kaizin ga Shina ni shōkai shita seikai chirihon nit suite (first part)(second part) 南懷仁が支那に紹介した世界地理書に就て(一)、(二) (On the World Geography Books Introduced by Ferdinand Verbiest to China),” Chikyū 24, no. 5 (1935) and 24, no. 6 (1935): 59–67 and 49–56; Akioka Takejrō 秋岡武次郎, “Nan Kaizin cho no Konyo zusetsu ni tsuite (first part) (second part) (third part) (fourth part) 南懷仁著の坤輿圖說に就いて(一)、(二)、(三)、(四) (Ferdinand Verbiest’ Kunyu tushuo, part 1, 2, 3, 4),” Chiri kyōiku 29, no. 1 (1938), 29, no. 2 (1938), 29, no. 3 (1938), and 29, no. 4 (1938): 1–10, 21–30, 32–6, and 20–9.

  23. 23.

    Hartmut Walravens, “Konrad Gessner in chinesischem Gewand: Darstellungen fremder Tiere im K’un-yu t’u-shuo des P. Verbiest (1623–1688),” Gesnerus 30, no. 3-4 (1973): 87–98.

  24. 24.

    For the history and collection of the Beitang library (Pei-T’ang Library), see the Lazarist Mission, Peking, Catalogue of the Pei-T’ang Library (Peking: Lazarist Mission Press, 1949; reprint, Peking: National Library of China Publishing House, 2009); Fang Hao 方豪, “Mingji xishu qiqian bu liuru Zhongguo kao 明季西書七千部流入中國考 (The Research on the History of the Inflow of the Seven Thousand Western Books into China),” Wenshi zazhi 3, no.1–2 (1944); Fang Hao, Fang Hao liushi ziding gao 方豪六十自定稿 (The Self Edition by Fang Hao at the Age of Sixty) (Taipei: Xuesheng shuju, 1969), vol. 1, 39–54; Fang Hao, “Beitang tushuguan cangshu zhi 北堂圖書館藏書志 (The Note on the Collection of Beitang Library),” in Fang Hao liushi ziding gao, ed. by Fang Hao (Taipei: Xuesheng shuju, 1969), 1833–47; Tuo Xiaotang 拓曉堂, “Beitang shanben shu gaishu 北堂善本書概述 (The Overview of the Rare Books in the Beitang Library),” Guojia tushuguan xuekan 2 (1993): 110–8, 81; Li Guoqing 李國慶, and Sun Liping 孫利平, “Beitang shu ji qi yanjiu liyong: lishi yu xianzhuang 北堂書及其研究利用:歷史與現狀 (The Books in the Beitang Library and its Research and Utilization: History and its Current Situation),” Weixian 1 (2003): 214–31 and 256.

  25. 25.

    Concerning the study of natural history in early European history, see Roger French, Ancient Natural History (New York: Routledge, 1994), especially chapter 3; Miguel de Asúa, and Roger French, “Introduction,” in A New World of Animals: Early Modern Europeans on the Creatures of Iberian America, ed. Miguel de Asúa and Roger French (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), xiii–xvi; Robert Huxley, ed., The Great Naturalists (London: The Natural History Museum, 2007), 44–75.

  26. 26.

    For how Europeans came to know and picture the opossum, see Victoria Dickenson, Drawn from Life: Science and Art in the Portrayal of the New World (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998), 40–4; Miguel de Asúa and Roger French, A New World of Animals: Early Modern Europeans on the Creatures of Iberian America (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), 13–4.

  27. 27.

    The version in the National Palace Museum in Taipei, the original court one, is monochrome; see Fung Ming-chu 馮明珠, ed., Kangxi dadi yu Taiyang wang Luyi shisi tezhan 康熙大帝與太陽王路易十四特展 (Emperor Kangxi and the Sun King Louis XIV) (Taipei: Guoli Gugong bowuyuan, 2011), 110–3.

  28. 28.

    Conrad Gesner, Icones animalium quadrupedum viviparorum et oviparorum (Tiguri: Officina Froschoviana, 1560), 127.

  29. 29.

    André Thevet, Les singularitez de la France antarctique: autrement nommee Amerique, & de plusieurs terres & isles decouvertes de nostre temps (Paris: Heritiers de Maurice de la Porte, 1558), 109, see Dickenson, Drawn from Life, 36.

  30. 30.

    Dickenson, Drawn from Life, 35.

  31. 31.

    André Thevet, La cosmographie universelle: d’André Thevet, cosmographe du roy: illustrée de diverses figures des choses plus remarquables veues par l’auteur, & incogneues de noz anciens & modernes (Paris: Guillaume Chandiere, 1575), see Dickenson, Drawn from Life, 36.

  32. 32.

    Orig. “急則吼.” Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 404.

  33. 33.

    Conrad Gesner, Historia animalium liber I: De quadrupedibus viviparis, 2nd ed. (Francoefurti: Bibliopolium Cambierianum, 1603), 162–3. For the digital version in the library of University of Sevilla, see http://fondosdigitales.us.es/fondos/libros/3226 (accessed on April 21, 2013).

  34. 34.

    “Orasius” is actually a typographical error for “oraflus” (because “f” and “s” look alike in the manuscript), which is derived from “azorafa,” a Spanish word deriving from Arabic. The modern word “giraffe” also shares the same origins. See Berthold Laufer, The Giraffe in History and Art (Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 1928), 72.

  35. 35.

    Conrad Gesner, Icones animalium quadrupedum viviparorum et oviparorum, additiones, 124–5, For the digital book from Bibliothèque nationale de France, see http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b23002468.item.f102.legendes (accessed on April 21, 2013). Gesner died in 1565, so the supplement should have been added by him, not by others later.

  36. 36.

    Gesner, Historia animalium liber I, 149.

  37. 37.

    Gesner, Icones animalium quadrupedum, 124–5; Linda Komaroff, Gifts of the Sultan: The Arts of Giving at the Islamic Courts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2011), cat. no. 219, 106–7, 288.

  38. 38.

    Laufer, The Giraffe in History and Art, 31–40.

  39. 39.

    Chang Renxia 常任俠, “Mingchu Mengjiala guo gong qilin tu 明初孟加拉國貢麒麟圖 (The Painting on Bangladesh sending the Qilin animal as a tribute (to China) in the early Ming Period),” Gugong bowuyuan yuankan 3 (1983): 14–7; Chen Guodong 陳國棟, “Zheng He chuandui xia Xiyang de dongji: sumu, hujiao, yu changjinglu 鄭和船隊下西洋的動機: 蘇木、胡椒與長頸鹿 (The Motives of the Voyages to the Western Oceans by Zheng He’s Fleet: Sapan Wood, Pepper, and Giraffes),” Chuanshi yanjiu 17 (2002): 121–34.

  40. 40.

    The two most famous versions are an anonymous Ming dynasty Qilin Painting with Shen Du 沈度’s Ode (Ruiying Qilin song 瑞應麒麟頌) in the National Palace Museum in Taipei and another version with the same title and composition in the Philadelphia Museum of Art.

  41. 41.

    See the thirty-first leaf in volume six of the Album of Beasts.

  42. 42.

    Orig. “皮備五彩.” Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 402.

  43. 43.

    This rhinoceros immediately became the most treasured beast in the menagerie of Manuel I, the king of Portugal. He even arranged a fight between the rhinoceros and an elephant to verify the saying by naturalists in Roman times that the elephant and rhinoceros were natural enemies. He later offered it to Pope Leo X. Unfortunately, it died in a shipwreck, but its body was made into a specimen and arrived in Rome in February of 1516. For more on the story of this rhinoceros in Europe, see Donald Lach, “Rhinoceros,” in Asia in the Making of Europe, ed. Donald Lach (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1970), vol. II, book 1, 158–72; Eugenio Menegon, “New Knowledge of Strange Things: Exotic Animals from the West,” Gujin lunheng 15 (October 2006): 40–8; Walravens, “Konrad Gessner,” 87–98.

  44. 44.

    Lach, “Rhinoceros,” 163.

  45. 45.

    For a more detailed discussion on images of the rhinoceros in China, see Lai Yu-chih 賴毓芝, “Cong Dule dao Qinggong: yi xiniu wei zhongxing de quanqiu shi guancha 從杜勒到清宮:以犀牛為中心的全球史觀察 (From Albrecht Dürer to the Qing Court: the Observations on the Depictions of rhinoceros from a Global Perspective),” Gugong wenwu yuekan 344 (2011): 68–81.

  46. 46.

    See Chen Yuanpeng 陳元朋, “Chuantong bowu zhishi li de ‘zhenshi’ yu ‘xiangxiang’: yi xijiao yu xiniu wei zhuti de ge’an yanjiu 傳統博物知識裡的「真實」與「想像」:以犀角與犀牛為主體的個案研究 (Reality and Imagination in the Knowledge of Traditional Natural History: A Study Based upon the Rhinoceros and Rhinoceros Horns),” Guoli Zhengzhi daxue lishi xuebao 33 (2010): 1–82.

  47. 47.

    Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1976), 39.

  48. 48.

    Goodman, Languages of Art, 38.

  49. 49.

    Margaret A. Hagen, Varieties of Realism: Geometries of Representational Art (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 8.

  50. 50.

    John Hyman, The Objective Eye: Color, Form, and Reality in the Theory of Art (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2006), 155–237.

  51. 51.

    Nian had been the Governor of Guangdong, Supervisor of the Jingdezhen Imperial Kilns, Supervisor-in-chief of the Imperial Household Department, Commissioner of Huai’an Customs The two Chinese phrases here are “意匠經營” and “泰西之法,” see Nian Xiyao, Shixue 視學 (The Study of Vision), in Xuxiu Siku quanshu 續修四庫全書 (The Continuation to the Complete Collection of the Imperial Four Treasuries), vol. 1067 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1995–2002), 27.

  52. 52.

    Orig. “毋徒漫語人曰, 真而不妙, 夫不真又安所得妙,” see Nian, Shixue, 27.

  53. 53.

    Orig. “未有形缺而神全者.” See Zou Yigui 鄒一桂, Xiaoshang huapu 小山畫譜 (The Painting Manual of Xiaoshang), in Jingyin Wenyuange Siku quanshu 景印文淵閣四庫全書 (The Wenyuange Edition of the Complete Collection of the Imperial Four Treasuries), vol. 838, 703; Qianlong Emperor 乾隆, Yuzhi shiji sanji 御製詩集三集 (Imperial Poems), juan 31, 10b–11a, in Jingyin Wenyuange Siku quanshu 景印文淵閣四庫全書 (The Wenyuange Edition of the Complete Collection of the Imperial Four Treasuries), vol. 1305, 722.

  54. 54.

    Orig. “以郎[世寧]之似合李[公麟]格.” See the Qianlong Emperor, Yuzhi shiji sanji 御製詩集三集 (Qianlong Imperial-Compiled Poem Collection, Collection III), juan 31, 10b–11a, in Jingyin Wenyuange Siku quanshu 景印文淵閣四庫全書 (The Wenyuange Edition of the Complete Collection of the Imperial Four Treasuries), vol. 1305, 722.

  55. 55.

    Susan Bush, The Chinese Literati on Painting: Su Shih (1037–1101) to Tung Ch’i-ch’ang (1555–1636), Harvard-Yenching Institute Studies 27 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1971), 26.

  56. 56.

    See Yuzhi shiji sanji 御製詩集三集 (Qianlong Imperial-Compiled Poem Collection, Collection III), juan 31, 10b–11a, in Jingyin wenyuange siku quanshu 景印文淵閣四庫全書 (The Wenyuange Edition of the Complete Collection of the Imperial Four Treasuries), vol. 1305, 722.

  57. 57.

    For example, his breakthrough research on nao 夒, using records in both Classic of Mountains and Seas and oracle bones, argues that it was the ancestor of people in the Shang and Zhou (1100–256 BCE) period; Wang Guowei 王國維, “Yin puci zhong suo jian xiangong xianwang kao 殷卜辭中所見先公先王考 (The Research on the Early Dukes and Kings seen in the Oracle Bones of the Yin Period),” in Guantang jilin 觀堂集林 (Collected Works of Guantang) (Shanghai: Shanghai shudian, 1992), juan 9, 1a–15b.

  58. 58.

    Orig. “繪事所垂, 皆悉徵實.” Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 407.

  59. 59.

    Orig. “是一是二, 不即不離.” This translation is from Wu Hung, The Double Screen: Medium and Representation in Chinese Painting (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), 235.

  60. 60.

    Kristina Renée Kleutghen, “One or Two, Repictured,” Archives of Asian Art 62 (2012): 25–46; Patricia Berger, Empire of Emptiness: Buddhist Art and Political Authority in Qing China (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2003), 51–4; Wu Hung, The Double Screen, 200–36.

  61. 61.

    Berger, Empire of Emptiness, 53

  62. 62.

    See Bryan Kolb, and Ian Whishaw, Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology (New York: Worth Publishers, 2003), 453–4, 457.

  63. 63.

    Orig. “回部嚮化底貢, 而圖天驥之材.” Yuan, Qinggong Shou pu, 407.

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  1. Institute of Modern History, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan

    Yu-chih Lai

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    Anna Grasskamp

  2. Cluster of Excellence Asia & Europe in a Global Context, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany

    Monica Juneja

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Lai, Yc. (2018). Domesticating the Global and Materializing the Unknown: A Study of the Album of Beasts at the Qianlong Court. In: Grasskamp, A., Juneja, M. (eds) EurAsian Matters. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75641-7_6

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