Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Trends in Schizophrenia Diagnosis and Treatment

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Advances in Psychiatry

Abstract

This review provides an overview of the concepts, methods and current status of the classification and diagnosis of schizophrenia and of the guidelines in schizophrenia treatment since the respective previous issue of Advances in Psychiatry had been published in 2009. While research evidence has greatly advanced the understanding of the aetiopathogenesis of schizophrenia, the diagnostic criteria of schizophrenia remain clinical ones. Classification criteria have been revised for the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) of the American Psychiatric Association. These and the revision of the classification of schizophrenia in the upcoming 11th version of the International Classification of Diseases issued by the World Health Organization (ICD-11) will be reviewed. Furthermore, a substantial number of studies have advanced schizophrenia treatment in pharmacotherapy and psychosocial therapies, and this increasing evidence makes it ever more important to establish clear guidelines to assure the transfer of evidence-based diagnostic and therapeutic procedures into clinical practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 229.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Gaebel W, Riesbeck M, Wobrock T. Schizophrenia guidelines across the world: a selective review and comparison. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2011a;23:379–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature. 2014;511(7510):421–7.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Hauberg ME, Roussos P, Grove J, Børglum AD, Mattheisen M, Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. Analyzing the role of MicroRNAs in schizophrenia in the context of common genetic risk variants. JAMA Psychiat. 2016;73(4):369–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Schwarz E, Izmailov R, Liò P, Meyer-Lindenberg A. Protein interaction networks link schizophrenia risk loci to synaptic function. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42(6):1334–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  5. Liu M, Malone SM, Vaidyanathan U, Keller MC, Abecasis G, McGue M, Iacono WG, Vrieze SI. Psychophysiological endophenotypes to characterize mechanisms of known schizophrenia genetic loci. Psychol Med. 2016;20:1–10.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Koutsouleris N, Riecher-Rössler A, Meisenzahl EM, Smieskova R, Studerus E, Kambeitz-Ilankovic L, von Saldern S, Cabral C, Reiser M, Falkai P, Borgwardt S. Detecting the psychosis prodrome across high-risk populations using neuroanatomical biomarkers. Schizophr Bull. 2015;41(2):471–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Zarogianni E, Storkey AJ, Johnstone EC, Owens DG, Lawrie SM. Improved individualized prediction of schizophrenia in subjects at familial high risk, based on neuroanatomical data, schizotypal and neurocognitive features. Schizophr Res. 2017;181:6–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2016.08.027.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Schmitt A, Martins-de-Souza D, Akbarian S, Cassoli JS, Ehrenreich H, Fischer A, Fonteh A, Gattaz WF, Gawlik M, Gerlach M, Grünblatt E, Halene T, Hasan A, Hashimoto K, Kim YK, Kirchner SK, Kornhuber J, Kraus TF, Malchow B, Nascimento JM, Rossner M, Schwarz M, Steiner J, Talib L, Thibaut F, Riederer P, Falkai P, Members of the WFSBP Task Force on Biological Markers. Consensus paper of the WFSBP Task Force on Biological Markers: criteria for biomarkers and endophenotypes of schizophrenia, part III: molecular mechanisms. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2017;18:330–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Schmidt A, Cappucciati M, Radua J, Rutigliano G, Rocchetti M, Dell'Osso L, Politi P, Borgwardt S, Reilly T, Valmaggia L, McGuire P, Fusar-Poli P. Improving prognostic accuracy in subjects at clinical high risk for psychosis: systematic review of predictive models and meta-analytical sequential testing simulation. Schizophr Bull. 2017;43:375–88.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Crossley NA, Mechelli A, Ginestet C, Rubinov M, Bullmore ET, McGuire P. Altered hub functioning and compensatory activations in the connectome: a meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42(2):434–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Friston K, Brown HR, Siemerkus J, Stephan KE. The dysconnection hypothesis (2016). Schizophr Res. 2016;176(2–3):83–94.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  12. Klauser P, Baker ST, Cropley VL, Bousman C, Fornito A, Cocchi L, Fullerton JM, Rasser P, Schall U, Henskens F, Michie PT, Loughland C, Catts SV, Mowry B, Weickert TW, Shannon Weickert C, Carr V, Lenroot R, Pantelis C, Zalesky A. White matter disruptions in schizophrenia are spatially widespread and topologically converge on brain network hubs. Schizophr Bull. 2017;43:425–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Braun U, Schäfer A, Bassett DS, Rausch F, Schweiger JI, Bilek E, Erk S, Romanczuk-Seiferth N, Grimm O, Geiger LS, Haddad L, Otto K, Mohnke S, Heinz A, Zink M, Walter H, Schwarz E, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Tost H. Dynamic brain network reconfiguration as a potential schizophrenia genetic risk mechanism modulated by NMDA receptor function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2016;113(44):12568–73.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  14. Cetin MS, Houck JM, Rashid B, Agacoglu O, Stephen JM, Sui J, Canive J, Mayer A, Aine C, Bustillo JR, Calhoun VD. Multimodal classification of schizophrenia patients with MEG and fMRI data using static and dynamic connectivity measures. Front Neurosci. 2016;10:466.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Bost C, Pascual O, Honnorat J. Autoimmune encephalitis in psychiatric institutions: current perspectives. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2016;12:2775–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  16. Smyth AM, Lawrie S. The neuroimmunology of schizophrenia. Clin Psychopharmacol Neurosci. 2013;11(3):107–17.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  17. Watkins CC, Andrews SR. Clinical studies of neuroinflammatory mechanisms in schizophrenia. Schizophr Res. 2016;176(1):14–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Pollak TA, McCormack R, Peakman M, Nicholson TR, David AS. Prevalence of anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor [corrected] antibodies in patients with schizophrenia and related psychoses: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Med. 2014;44(12):2475–87.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Réus GZ, Fries GR, Stertz L, Badawy M, Passos IC, Barichello T, Kapczinski F, Quevedo J. The role of inflammation and microglial activation in the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. Neuroscience. 2015;300:141–54.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Volk DW. Role of microglia disturbances and immune-related marker abnormalities in cortical circuitry dysfunction in schizophrenia. Neurobiol Dis. 2016;99:58–65.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Howes OD, McCutcheon R, Owen MJ, Murray RM. The role of genes, stress, and dopamine in the development of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry. 2017;81(1):9–20.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Zorn JV, Schür RR, Boks MP, Kahn RS, Joëls M, Vinkers CH. Cortisol stress reactivity across psychiatric disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2016;77:25–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Haddad L, Schäfer A, Streit F, Lederbogen F, Grimm O, Wüst S, Deuschle M, Kirsch P, Tost H, Meyer-Lindenberg A. Brain structure correlates of urban upbringing, an environmental risk factor for schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 2015;41(1):115–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Lederbogen F, Kirsch P, Haddad L, Streit F, Tost H, Schuch P, Wüst S, Pruessner JC, Rietschel M, Deuschle M, Meyer-Lindenberg A. City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans. Nature. 2011;474(7352):498–501.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Cancel A, Comte M, Truillet R, Boukezzi S, Rousseau PF, Zendjidjian XY, Sage T, Lazerges PE, Guedj E, Khalfa S, Azorin JM, Blin O, Fakra E. Childhood neglect predicts disorganization in schizophrenia through grey matter decrease in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015;132(4):244–56.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Teicher MH, Samson JA, Anderson CM, Ohashi K. The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2016;17(10):652–66.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. O’Hare T, Shen C, Sherrer M. Differences in trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms in clients with schizophrenia spectrum and major mood disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2013;205(1–2):85–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Ceaser AE, Barch DM. Striatal activity is associated with deficits of cognitive control and aberrant salience for patients with schizophrenia. Front Hum Neurosci. 2016;9:687. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2015.00687.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Wang X, Zhang W, Sun Y, Hu M, Chen A. Aberrant intra-salience network dynamic functional connectivity impairs large-scale network interactions in schizophrenia. Neuropsychologia. 2016;93(Pt A):262–70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Dudley R, Taylor P, Wickham S, Hutton P. Psychosis, delusions and the “jumping to conclusions” reasoning bias: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42(3):652–65.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. McLean BF, Mattiske JK, Balzan RP. Association of the jumping to conclusions and evidence integration biases with delusions in psychosis: a detailed meta-analysis. Schizophr Bull. 2017;43:344–54.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Van Os J, Reininghaus U, Meyer-Lindenberg A. The search for environmental mechanisms underlying the expression of psychosis: introduction. Schizophr Bull. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw178.

  33. Mizrahi R. Social Stress and Psychosis Risk: Common Neurochemical Substrates? Neuropsychopharmacology 2015;41(3):666–74.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Debost JP, Larsen JT, Munk-Olsen T, Mortensen PB, Meyer U, Petersen L. Joint effects of exposure to prenatal infection and peripubertal psychological trauma in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull. 2017;43:171–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Attademo L, Bernardini F, Garinella R, Compton MT. Environmental pollution and risk of psychotic disorders: A review of the science to date. Schizophr Res. 2017;181:55–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2016.10.003.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Anders S, Kinney DK. Abnormal immune system development and function in schizophrenia helps reconcile diverse findings and suggests new treatment and prevention strategies. Brain Res. 2015;1617:93–112.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Gaebel W, Zielasek J. Focus on psychosis. Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 2015a;17(1):9–18.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Gaebel W, Zielasek J. Schizophrenia in 2020: trends in diagnosis and therapy. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2015b;69:661–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Waters F, Fernyhough C. Hallucinations: a systematic review of points of similarity and difference across diagnostic classes. Schizophr Bull. 2017;43(1):32–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Kendler KS. The clinical features of paranoia in the 20th century and their representation in diagnostic criteria from DSM-III through DSM-5. Schizophr Bull. 2017;43:332–43. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbw161.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, DSM-5. 5th ed. Washington and London: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  42. Tandon R, Gaebel W, Barch DM, Bustillo J, Gur RE, Heckers S, Malaspina D, Owen MJ, Schultz S, Tsuang M, Van Os J, Carpenter W. Definition and description of schizophrenia in the DSM-5. Schizophr Res. 2013;150(1):3–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. World Health Organization. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organisation; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

  44. International Advisory Group for the Revision of ICD-10 Mental and Behavioural Disorders. A conceptual framework for the revision of the ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. World Psychiatry. 2011;10:86–92.

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  45. Reed GM, Rebello TJ, Pike KM, Medina-Mora ME, Gureje O, Zhao M, et al. WHO’s global clinical practice network for mental health. Lancet Psychiatry. 2015;2:379–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Keeley JW, Reed GM, Roberts MC, Evans SC, Medina-Mora ME, Robles R, et al. Developing a science of clinical utility in diagnostic classification systems field study strategies for ICD-11 mental and behavioral disorders. Am Psychol. 2016;71:3–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Gaebel W, Weinmann S, Sartorius N, Rutz W, McIntyre JS. Schizophrenia practice guidelines: international survey and comparison. Br J Psychiatry. 2005;187:248–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Gaebel W, Zielasek J, Reed GM. Mental and Behavioural disorders in the ICD-11: concepts, methodologies, and current status. Psychiatr Pol. 2017;51:169–95.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Gaebel W, Zielasek J, Cleveland HR. Classifying psychosis—challenges and opportunities. Int Rev Psychiatry. 2012;24:538–48.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Gaebel W, Zielasek J, Cleveland HR. Psychotic disorders in ICD-11. Asian J Psychiatr. 2013;6:263–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE) (2009). Schizophrenia. Core interventions in the treatment and management of schizophrenia in adults in primary and secondary care (update). http://guidance.nice.org.uk/CG82.

  52. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2014). Psychosis and schizophrenia in adults: treatment and management. NICE Clinical Guideline 178. www.guidance.nice.org.uk/cg178.

  53. Gaebel W, Riesbeck M. Evidence-based treatment guidelines for the early illness phase in schizophrenia. Early Interv Psychiatry. 2008;2:303–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Larsen TK, Friis S, Haahr U, Joa I, Johannessen JO, Melle I, Opjordsmoen S, Simonsen E, Vaglum P. Early detection and intervention in first-episode schizophrenia: a critical review. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2001;103:323–34.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Fusar-Poli P, Bonoldi I, Yung AR, Borgwardt S, Kempton MJ, Valmaggia L, Barale F, Caverzasi E, McGuire P. Predicting psychosis: meta-analysis of transition outcomes in individuals at high clinical risk. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012a;69:220–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Fusar-Poli P, McGuire P, Borgwardt S. Mapping prodromal psychosis: a critical review of neuroimaging studies. Eur Psychiatry. 2012b;27:181–91.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. De Herdt A, Wampers M, Vancampfort D, De Hert M, Vanhees L, Demunter H, Van Bouwel L, Brunner E, Probst M. Neurocognition in clinical high risk young adults who did or did not convert to a first schizophrenic psychosis: a meta-analysis. Schizophr Res. 2013;149:48–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Fusar-Poli P, Borgwardt S, Bechdolf A, Addington J, Riecher-Rössler A, Schultze-Lutter F, Keshavan M, Wood S, Ruhrmann S, Seidman LJ, Valmaggia L, Cannon T, Velthorst E, De Haan L, Cornblatt B, Bonoldi I, Birchwood M, McGlashan T, Carpenter W, McGorry P, Klosterkötter J, McGuire P, Yung A. The psychosis high-risk state: a comprehensive state-of-the-art review. JAMA Psychiat. 2013;70:107–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Schultze-Lutter F, Michel C, Schmidt SJ, Schimmelmann BG, Maric NP, Salokangas RK, Riecher-Rössler A, van der Gaag M, Nordentoft M, Raballo A, Meneghelli A, Marshall M, Morrison A, Ruhrmann S, Klosterkötter J. EPA guidance on the early detection of clinical high risk states of psychoses. Eur Psychiatry. 2015;30:405–16.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Fusar-Poli P, Schultze-Lutter F, Cappucciati M, Rutigliano G, Bonoldi I, Stahl D, Borgwardt S, Riecher-Rössler A, Addington J, Perkins DO, Woods SW, McGlashan T, Lee J, Klosterkötter J, Yung AR, McGuire P. The dark side of the moon: meta-analytical impact of recruitment strategies on risk enrichment in the clinical high risk state for psychosis. Schizophr Bull. 2016;42:732–43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. van der Gaag M, Smit F, Bechdolf A, French P, Linszen DH, Yung AR, McGorry P, Cuijpers P. Preventing a first episode of psychosis: meta-analysis of randomized controlled prevention trials of 12 month and longer-term follow-ups. Schizophr Res. 2013;149:56–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Schmidt SJ, Schultze-Lutter F, Schimmelmann BG, Maric NP, Salokangas RK, Riecher-Rössler A, van der Gaag M, Meneghelli A, Nordentoft M, Marshall M, Morrison A, Raballo A, Klosterkötter J, Ruhrmann S. EPA guidance on the early intervention in clinical high risk states of psychoses. Eur Psychiatry. 2015;30:388–404.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Nielsen RE, Levander S, Kjaersdam Telléus G, Jensen SO, Østergaard Christensen T, Leucht S. Second-generation antipsychotic effect on cognition in patients with schizophrenia—a meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2015;131:185–96.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Leucht S, Cipriani A, Spineli L, Mavridis D, Orey D, Richter F, Samara M, Barbui C, Engel RR, Geddes JR, Kissling W, Stapf MP, Lässig B, Salanti G, Davis JM. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of 15 antipsychotic drugs in schizophrenia: a multiple-treatments meta-analysis. Lancet. 2013;382:951–62.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Penttilä M, Jääskeläinen E, Hirvonen N, Isohanni M, Miettunen J. Duration of untreated psychosis as predictor of long-term outcome in schizophrenia: systematic review/meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry. 2014;205:88–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Taylor M, Perera U. Invited commentary on … NICE v. SIGN on psychosis and schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry. 2016;208:320–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Andreasen NC, Carpenter WT, Kane JM, Lasser RA, Marder SR, Weinberger DR. Remission in schizophrenia: proposed criteria and rationale for consensus. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:441–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Gaebel W, Riesbeck M, Wölwer W, Klimke A, Eickhoff M, von Wilmsdorff M, Lemke M, Heuser I, Maier W, Huff W, Schmitt A, Sauer H, Riedel M, Klingberg S, Köpcke W, Ohmann C, Möller HJ, German Study Group on First-Episode Schizophrenia. Relapse prevention in first-episode schizophrenia: maintenance vs. intermittent drug treatment with prodrome-based early intervention. Results of a randomized controlled trial within the German Research Network on Schizophrenia. J Clin Psychiatry. 2011b;72:205–18.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Wunderink L, Nieboer RM, Wiersma D, Sytema S, Nienhuis FJ. Recovery in remitted first-episode psychosis at 7 years of follow-up of an early dose reduction/discontinuation or maintenance treatment strategy: long-term follow-up of a 2-year randomized clinical trial. JAMA Psychiat. 2013;70:913–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  70. Gaebel W, Wunderink L, Riesbeck M. Early medication discontinuation in first episode schizophrenia—beneficial or risky? Die Psychiatrie. 2016;13:136–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  71. Bellack AS. Scientific and consumer models of recovery in schizophrenia: concordance, contrasts, and implications. Schizophr Bull. 2006;32:432–42.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  72. Kane JM, Schooler NR, Marcy P, Correll CU, Brunette MF, Mueser KT, Rosenheck RA, Addington J, Estroff SE, Robinson J, Penn DL, Robinson DG. The RAISE early treatment program for first-episode psychosis: background, rationale, and study design. J Clin Psychiatry. 2015;76:240–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Mueser KT, Penn DL, Addington J, Brunette MF, Gingerich S, Glynn SM, Lynde DW, Gottlieb JD, Meyer-Kalos P, McGurk SR, Cather C, Saade S, Robinson DG, Schooler NR, Rosenheck RA, Kane JM. The NAVIGATE Program for first-episode psychosis: rationale, overview, and description of psychosocial components. Psychiatr Serv. 2015;66:680–90.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. Kane JM, Robinson DG, Schooler NR, Mueser KT, Penn DL, Rosenheck RA, Addington J, Brunette MF, Correll CU, Estroff SE, Marcy P, Robinson J, Meyer-Kalos PS, Gottlieb JD, Glynn SM, Lynde DW, Pipes R, Kurian BT, Miller AL, Azrin ST, Goldstein AB, Severe JB, Lin H, Sint KJ, John M, Heinssen RK. Comprehensive versus usual community care for first-episode psychosis: 2-year outcomes from the NIMH RAISE Early Treatment Program. Am J Psychiatry. 2016;173:362–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Fusar-Poli P, Papanastasiou E, Stahl D, Rocchetti M, Carpenter W, Shergill S, McGuire P. Treatments of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: meta-analysis of 168 randomized placebo-controlled trials. Schizophr Bull. 2015;41:892–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Keshavan MS, Lawler AN, Nasrallah HA, Tandon R. New drug developments in psychosis: challenges, opportunities and strategies. Prog Neurobiol. 2017;152:3–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pneurobio.2016.07.004.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  77. Marini S, De Berardis D, Vellante F, Santacroce R, Orsolini L, Valchera A, Girinelli G, Carano A, Fornaro M, Gambi F, Martinotti G, Di Giannantonio M. Celecoxib adjunctive treatment to antipsychotics in schizophrenia: a review of randomized clinical add-on trials. Mediat Inflamm. 2016;2016:3476240. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/3476240.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Citrome L. A review of the pharmacology, efficacy and tolerability of recently approved and upcoming oral antipsychotics: an evidence-based medicine approach. CNS Drugs. 2013;27:879–911.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Scarff JR. Brexpiprazole: a new treatment option for schizophrenia. Innov Clin Neurosci. 2016;13:26–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  80. Moghaddam B. A mechanistic approach to preventing schizophrenia in at-risk individuals. Neuron. 2013;78:1–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Marín O. Developmental timing and critical windows for the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Nat Med. 2016;22(11):1229–38.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Cuthbert BN, Insel TR. Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Med. 2013;11:126. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-11-126.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Kozak MJ, Cuthbert BN. The NIMH research domain criteria initiative: background, issues, and pragmatics. Psychophysiology. 2016;53(3):286–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  84. Leboyer M, Berk M, Yolken RH, Tamouza R, Kupfer D, Groc L. Immuno-psychiatry: an agenda for clinical practice and innovative research. BMC Med. 2016;14(1):173.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. Carpenter W, Regier D. Diagnostic categories: provisional, not otherwise classified, or place-holder? Schizophr Bull. 2016;42:1305–6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Conflicts of Interest Statement

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest regarding the contents of this review.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany

    Wolfgang Gaebel & Mathias Riesbeck

  2. WHO Collaborating Center for Quality Assurance and Empowerment in Mental Health, Düsseldorf, Germany

    Wolfgang Gaebel & Jürgen Zielasek

  3. LVR Institute for Healthcare Research, Düsseldorf, Germany

    Wolfgang Gaebel & Jürgen Zielasek

  4. Unidad de Psiquiatría, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Andrés Bello, Santiago, Chile

    Veronica W. Larach

  5. Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany

    Peter Falkai

Authors
  1. Wolfgang Gaebel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mathias Riesbeck
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Veronica W. Larach
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter Falkai
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Jürgen Zielasek
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Wolfgang Gaebel .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. The Medical Centre, Nuneaton, United Kingdom

    Afzal Javed

  2. Division of Neuroscience Medicine, Aristotle University, Division of Neuroscience Medicine, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Kostas N. Fountoulakis

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Gaebel, W., Riesbeck, M., Larach, V.W., Falkai, P., Zielasek, J. (2019). Trends in Schizophrenia Diagnosis and Treatment. In: Javed, A., Fountoulakis, K. (eds) Advances in Psychiatry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70554-5_35

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70554-5_35

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-319-70553-8

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-319-70554-5

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation