Toxoplasma

Moré, Gastón; Venturini, Maria Cecilia; Pardini, Lais; Unzaga, Juan Manuel

doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70132-5_6

Gastón Moré^3,4,
Maria Cecilia Venturini³,
Lais Pardini^3,4 &
…
Juan Manuel Unzaga³

1491 Accesses
3 Citations

Abstract

Toxoplasmosis is a zoonotic infection caused by the protozoon Toxoplasma gondii affecting animals worldwide. T. gondii has a facultative heteroxenous life cycle with felids as definitive hosts and a wide range of mammalian and avian species as intermediate hosts. Infectious stages are oocysts present in felid feces, bradyzoites forming tissue cysts, and tachyzoites. While two major clonal lineages (type II and III) dominate clinical and natural isolates in Europe and North America, other parts of the world, like Brazil and Argentina, are dominated by non-clonal or other clonal T. gondii lineages, representing a greater genetic diversity. Different animal species show a variable degree of susceptibility to T. gondii infection and to the development of clinical signs. Humans are considered susceptible, and about one third of the human population in the world is estimated to be infected. Toxoplasmosis is an important abortive disease in small ruminants. It is mainly asymptomatic in cattle and chicken, but the latter is an epidemiological sentinel, and isolation of viable parasites from this source is frequent. Infected pigs can show reproductive failure, and, in addition, their tissues are considered, together with infected small ruminant tissues, a relevant source of human infection. Cats and dogs can show neuromuscular disease mainly associated with other immunosuppressive conditions, such as viral infections. Some species like New World monkeys, lemurs, Pallas’ cats, slender-tailed meerkats, and some Australian marsupials are highly susceptible to fatal generalized toxoplasmosis. General control measures are presented, focusing on the prevention of human toxoplasmosis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Chapter: USD 29.95; Price excludes VAT (USA)

eBook: USD 109.00; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Softcover Book: USD 139.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Hardcover Book: USD 199.99; Price excludes VAT (USA)

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

Adkesson MJ, Gorman ME, Hsiao V, Whittington JK, Langan JN. Toxoplasma gondii inclusions in peripheral blood leukocytes of a red-necked wallaby (Macropus rufogriseus). Vet Clin Pathol. 2007;36:97–100.
Article Google Scholar
Ajzenberg D. 1995-2015: it is time to celebrate 20 years of (intensive) genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii strains. Future Microbiol. 2015;10:689–91. https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb.15.23.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ajzenberg D, Banuls AL, Su C, Dumetre A, Demar M, Carme B, Darde ML. Genetic diversity, clonality and sexuality in Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Parasitol. 2004;34:1185–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.06.007.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Ali CN, Harris JA, Watkins JD, Adesiyun AA. Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in dogs in Trinidad and Tobago. Vet Parasitol. 2003;113:179–87.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Basso W, Edelhofer R, Zenker W, Mostl K, Kubber-Heiss A, Prosl H. Toxoplasmosis in Pallas’ cats (Otocolobus manul) raised in captivity. Parasitology. 2005;130:293–9.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Basso W, Venturini MC, More G, Quiroga A, Bacigalupe D, Unzaga JM, Larsen A, Laplace R, Venturini L. Toxoplasmosis in captive Bennett’s wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) in Argentina. Vet Parasitol. 2007;144:157–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.09.030.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Basso W, et al. Isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from captive slender-tailed meerkats (Suricata suricatta) with fatal toxoplasmosis in Argentina. Vet Parasitol. 2009;161:201–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.01.006.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Basso W, Handke M, Sydler T, Borel N, Grimm F, Sidler X, Deplazes P. Involvement of Toxoplasma gondii in reproductive disorders in Swiss pig farms. Parasitol Int. 2015;64:157–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2014.11.017.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Beck HP, et al. Molecular approaches to diversity of populations of apicomplexan parasites. Int J Parasitol. 2009;39:175–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.10.001.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Bermudez R, Failde LD, Losada AP, Nieto JM, Quiroga MI. Toxoplasmosis in Bennett’s wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus) in Spain. Vet Parasitol. 2009;160:155–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.10.082.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Blader IJ, Saeij JP. Communication between Toxoplasma gondii and its host: impact on parasite growth, development, immune evasion, and virulence. APMIS. 2009;117:458–76. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0463.2009.02453.x.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Buxton D, Thomson K, Maley S, Wright S, Bos HJ. Vaccination of sheep with a live incomplete strain (S48) of Toxoplasma gondii and their immunity to challenge when pregnant. Vet Rec. 1991;129:89–93.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Canada N, Meireles CS, Rocha A, da Costa JM, Erickson MW, Dubey JP. Isolation of viable Toxoplasma gondii from naturally infected aborted bovine fetuses. J Parasitol. 2002;88:1247–8. https://doi.org/10.1645/0022-3395(2002)088[1247:IOVTGF]2.0.CO;2.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Carme B, Demar M, Ajzenberg D, Darde ML. Severe acquired toxoplasmosis caused by wild cycle of Toxoplasma gondii, French Guiana. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15:656–8. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1504.081306.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Deng H, Dam-Deisz C, Luttikholt S, Maas M, Nielen M, Swart A, Vellema P, van der Giessen J, Opsteegh M. Risk factors related to Toxoplasma gondii seroprevalence in indoor-housed Dutch dairy goats. Prev Vet Med. 2016;124:45–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.12.014.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Dietz HH, Henriksen P, Bille-Hansen V, Henriksen SA. Toxoplasmosis in a colony of new world monkeys. Vet Parasitol. 1997;68:299–304.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP. Distribution of cysts and tachyzoites in calves and pregnant cows inoculated with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts. Vet Parasitol. 1983;13:199–211.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP. A review of toxoplasmosis in pigs. Vet Parasitol. 1986;19:181–223.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP. Strategies to reduce transmission of Toxoplasma gondii to animals and humans. Vet Parasitol. 1996;64:65–70.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP. Advances in the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Parasitol. 1998a;28:1019–24.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP. Toxoplasma gondii oocyst survival under defined temperatures. J Parasitol. 1998b;84:862–5.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP. A review of toxoplasmosis in wild birds. Vet Parasitol. 2002;106:121–53.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP. Toxoplasma gondii infections in chickens (Gallus domesticus): prevalence, clinical disease, diagnosis and public health significance. Zoonoses Public Health. 2010a;57:60–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1863-2378.2009.01274.x.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dubey JP. Toxoplasmosis of animals and humans. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2010b.
Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Carpenter JL. Histologically confirmed clinical toxoplasmosis in cats: 100 cases (1952-1990). J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1993;203:1556–66.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Crutchley C. Toxoplasmosis in wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus and Macropus eugenii): blindness, treatment with atovaquone, and isolation of Toxoplasma gondii. J Parasitol. 2008;94:929–33. https://doi.org/10.1645/GE-1448.1.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Emond JP, Desmonts G, Anderson WR. Serodiagnosis of postnatally and prenatally induced toxoplasmosis in sheep. Am J Vet Res. 1987;48:1239–43.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Carpenter JL, Speer CA, Topper MJ, Uggla A. Newly recognized fatal protozoan disease of dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1988a;192:1269–85.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Ott-Joslin J, Torgerson RW, Topper MJ, Sundberg JP. Toxoplasmosis in black-faced kangaroos (Macropus fuliginosus melanops). Vet Parasitol. 1988b;30:97–105.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Lindsay DS, Speer CA. Structures of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites, bradyzoites, and sporozoites and biology and development of tissue cysts. Clin Microbiol Rev. 1998;11:267–99.
CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Dubey JP, et al. Prevalence of viable Toxoplasma gondii in beef, chicken, and pork from retail meat stores in the United States: risk assessment to consumers. J Parasitol. 2005;91:1082–93. https://doi.org/10.1645/GE-683.1.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Webb DM, Sundar N, Velmurugan GV, Bandini LA, Kwok OC, Su C. Endemic avian toxoplasmosis on a farm in Illinois: clinical disease, diagnosis, biologic and genetic characteristics of Toxoplasma gondii isolates from chickens (Gallus domesticus), and a goose (Anser Anser). Vet Parasitol. 2007;148:207–12.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Dubey JP, Pas A, Rajendran C, Kwok OC, Ferreira LR, Martins J, Hebel C, Hammer S, Su C. Toxoplasmosis in sand cats (Felis margarita) and other animals in the breeding Centre for Endangered Arabian Wildlife in the United Arab Emirates and al Wabra wildlife preservation, the State of Qatar. Vet Parasitol. 2010;172:195–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.05.013.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Epe C, Ising-Volmer S, Stoye M. Parasitological fecal studies of equids, dogs, cats and hedgehogs during the years 1984-1991. Dtsch Tierarztl Wochenschr. 1993;100:426–8.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Faria EB, Gennari SM, Pena HF, Athayde AC, Silva ML, Azevedo SS. Prevalence of anti-Toxoplasma gondii and anti-Neospora caninum antibodies in goats slaughtered in the public slaughterhouse of Patos city, Paraiba state, northeast region of Brazil. Vet Parasitol. 2007;149:126–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.07.009.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Fentress SJ, et al. Phosphorylation of immunity-related GTPases by a Toxoplasma gondii-secreted kinase promotes macrophage survival and virulence. Cell Host Microbe. 2010;8:484–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2010.11.005.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Fleckenstein MC, Reese ML, Konen-Waisman S, Boothroyd JC, Howard JC, Steinfeldt T. A Toxoplasma gondii pseudokinase inhibits host IRG resistance proteins. PLoS Biol. 2012;10:e1001358. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001358.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Gamble HR, Brady RC, Dubey JP. Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic pigs in the New England states. Vet Parasitol. 1999;82:129–36.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Garcia-Bocanegra I, Cabezon O, Hernandez E, Martinez-Cruz MS, Martinez-Moreno A, Martinez-Moreno J. Toxoplasma gondii in ruminant species (cattle, sheep, and goats) from southern Spain. J Parasitol. 2013;99:438–40. https://doi.org/10.1645/12-27.1.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Gottstein B, Hentrich B, Wyss R, Thur B, Busato A, Stark KD, Muller N. Molecular and immunodiagnostic investigations on bovine neosporosis in Switzerland. Int J Parasitol. 1998;28:679–91.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Gyimesi ZS, Lappin MR, Dubey JP. Application of assays for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in a colony of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagotricha). J Zoo Wildl Med. 2006;37:276–80. https://doi.org/10.1638/05-018.1.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Hide G. Role of vertical transmission of Toxoplasma gondii in prevalence of infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2016;14:335–44. https://doi.org/10.1586/14787210.2016.1146131.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Howe DK, Sibley LD. Toxoplasma gondii comprises three clonal lineages: correlation of parasite genotype with human disease. J Infect Dis. 1995;172:1561–6.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Howe DK, Honore S, Derouin F, Sibley LD. Determination of genotypes of Toxoplasma gondii strains isolated from patients with toxoplasmosis. J Clin Microbiol. 1997;35:1411–4.
CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Iovu A, Gyorke A, Mircean V, Gavrea R, Cozma V. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum in dairy goats from Romania. Vet Parasitol. 2012;186:470–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.11.062.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Jones JL, Kruszon-Moran D, Wilson M, McQuillan G, Navin T, McAuley JB. Toxoplasma gondii infection in the United States: seroprevalence and risk factors. Am J Epidemiol. 2001a;154:357–65.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Jones JL, Lopez A, Wilson M, Schulkin J, Gibbs R. Congenital toxoplasmosis: a review. Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2001b;56:296–305.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Karsten V, Qi H, Beckers CJ, Reddy A, Dubremetz JF, Webster P, Joiner KA. The protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii targets proteins to dense granules and the vacuolar space using both conserved and unusual mechanisms. J Cell Biol. 1998;141:1323–33.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Labalette P, Delhaes L, Margaron F, Fortier B, Rouland JF. Ocular toxoplasmosis after the fifth decade. Am J Ophthalmol. 2002;133:506–15.
Article Google Scholar
Lang C, Gross U, Luder CG. Subversion of innate and adaptive immune responses by Toxoplasma gondii. Parasitol Res. 2007;100:191–203. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-006-0306-9.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Lin MH, Chen TC, Kuo TT, Tseng CC, Tseng CP. Real-time PCR for quantitative detection of Toxoplasma gondii. J Clin Microbiol. 2000;38:4121–5.
CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Lindsay DS, Dubey JP. Toxoplasma gondii: the changing paradigm of congenital toxoplasmosis. Parasitology. 2011;138:1829–31. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182011001478.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Lopes AP, Dubey JP, Neto F, Rodrigues A, Martins T, Rodrigues M, Cardoso L. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in cattle, sheep, goats and pigs from the north of Portugal for human consumption. Vet Parasitol. 2013;193:266–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.12.001.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Mancianti F, Nardoni S, D'Ascenzi C, Pedonese F, Mugnaini L, Franco F, Papini R. Seroprevalence, detection of DNA in blood and milk, and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in a goat population in Italy. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:905326. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/905326.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
McAllister MM, McGuire AM, Jolley WR, Lindsay DS, Trees AJ, Stobart RH. Experimental neosporosis in pregnant ewes and their offspring. Vet Pathol. 1996;33:647–55.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Melo MB, Jensen KD, Saeij JP. Toxoplasma gondii effectors are master regulators of the inflammatory response. Trends Parasitol. 2011;27:487–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2011.08.001.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Miller CM, Boulter NR, Ikin RJ, Smith NC. The immunobiology of the innate response to Toxoplasma gondii. Int J Parasitol. 2009;39:23–39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.08.002.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Moré G, Basso W, Bacigalupe D, Venturini MC, Venturini L. Diagnosis of Sarcocystis cruzi, Neospora caninum, and Toxoplasma gondii infections in cattle. Parasitol Res. 2008;102:671–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-007-0810-6.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Moré G, Pardini L, Basso W, Machuca M, Bacigalupe D, Villanueva MC, Schares G, Venturini MC, Venturini L. Toxoplasmosis and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii in Macropus rufus and Macropus giganteus in Argentina. Vet Parasitol. 2010;169:57–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.12.004.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Moré G, et al. Toxoplasma gondii infection in sentinel and free-range chickens from Argentina. Vet Parasitol. 2012;184:116–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.09.012.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Ortega-Mora L, Gottstein B, Conraths F, Buxton D. Protozoal abortificients in farm ruminants. Guidelines for diagnosis and control. Wallingford: CABI; 2007.
Google Scholar
Pardini L, et al. Evaluation of an in-house TgSAG1 (P30) IgG ELISA for diagnosis of naturally acquired Toxoplasma gondii infection in pigs. Vet Parasitol. 2012;189:204–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.04.014.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Pardini L, et al. Isolation and molecular characterization of Toxoplasma gondii in a colony of captive black-capped squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis). Parasitol Int. 2015;64:587–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2015.08.009.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Pardini L, Moré G, Rudzinski M, Gos ML, Campero LM, Meyer A, Bernstein M, Unzaga JM, Venturini MC. Toxoplasma gondii isolates from chickens in an area with human toxoplasmic retinochoroiditis. Exp Parasitol. 2016;166:16–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2016.03.006.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Pena HF, Gennari SM, Dubey JP, Su C. Population structure and mouse-virulence of Toxoplasma gondii in Brazil. Int J Parasitol. 2008;38:561–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2007.09.004.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Pollard AM, Onatolu KN, Hiller L, Haldar K, Knoll LJ. Highly polymorphic family of glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored surface antigens with evidence of developmental regulation in Toxoplasma gondii. Infect Immun. 2008;76:103–10. https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.01170-07.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Saadatnia G, Haj Ghani H, Khoo BY, Maimunah A, Rahmah N. Optimization of Toxoplasma gondii cultivation in VERO cell line. Trop Biomed. 2010;27:125–30.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Saeij JP, Boyle JP, Coller S, Taylor S, Sibley LD, Brooke-Powell ET, Ajioka JW, Boothroyd JC. Polymorphic secreted kinases are key virulence factors in toxoplasmosis. Science. 2006;314:1780–3. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133690.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Schares G, Vrhovec MG, Pantchev N, Herrmann DC, Conraths FJ. Occurrence of Toxoplasma gondii and Hammondia hammondi oocysts in the faeces of cats from Germany and other European countries. Vet Parasitol. 2008;152:34–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.12.004.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Schares G, Herrmann DC, Maksimov P, Matzkeit B, Conraths FJ, Moré G, Preisinger R, Weigend S. Chicken line-dependent mortality after experimental infection with three type IIxIII recombinant Toxoplasma gondii clones. Exp Parasitol. 2016;180:101–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2016.11.004.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Shwab EK, Zhu XQ, Majumdar D, Pena HF, Gennari SM, Dubey JP, Su C. Geographical patterns of Toxoplasma gondii genetic diversity revealed by multilocus PCR-RFLP genotyping. Parasitology. 2014;141:453–61. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182013001844.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Sibley LD, Boothroyd JC. Virulent strains of Toxoplasma gondii comprise a single clonal lineage. Nature. 1992;359:82–5. https://doi.org/10.1038/359082a0.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Spencer JA, Joiner KS, Hilton CD, Dubey JP, Toivio-Kinnucan M, Minc JK, Blagburn BL. Disseminated toxoplasmosis in a captive ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta). J Parasitol. 2004;90:904–6. https://doi.org/10.1645/GE-249R.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Stormoen M, Tharaldsen J, Hopp P. Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in Norwegian dairy goats. Acta Vet Scand. 2012;54:75. https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0147-54-75.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Su C, Zhang X, Dubey JP. Genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii by multilocus PCR-RFLP markers: a high resolution and simple method for identification of parasites. Int J Parasitol. 2006;36:841–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2006.03.003.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Su C, Shwab EK, Zhou P, Zhu XQ, Dubey JP. Moving towards an integrated approach to molecular detection and identification of Toxoplasma gondii. Parasitology. 2010;137:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182009991065.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Su C, et al. Globally diverse Toxoplasma gondii isolates comprise six major clades originating from a small number of distinct ancestral lineages. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012;109:5844–9. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1203190109.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Tait ED, Hunter CA. Advances in understanding immunity to Toxoplasma gondii. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz. 2009;104:201–10.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Tenter AM, Heckeroth AR, Weiss LM. Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans. Int J Parasitol. 2000;30:1217–58.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Tizard IR. Veterinary immunology and introduction. 8th ed. Barcelona: Elsevier; 2009.
Google Scholar
Tzanidakis N, Maksimov P, Conraths FJ, Kiossis E, Brozos C, Sotiraki S, Schares G. Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats: seroprevalence and potential risk factors under dairy husbandry practices. Vet Parasitol. 2012;190:340–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.07.020.
Article PubMed Google Scholar
Uggla A, Sjoland L, Dubey JP. Immunohistochemical diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in fetuses and fetal membranes of sheep. Am J Vet Res. 1987;48:348–51.
CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Unzaga JM, Moré G, Bacigalupe D, Rambeaud M, Pardini L, Dellarupe A, De Felice L, Gos ML, Venturini MC. Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum infections in goat abortions from Argentina. Parasitol Int. 2014;63:865–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parint.2014.07.009.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
VanWormer E, Miller MA, Conrad PA, Grigg ME, Rejmanek D, Carpenter TE, Mazet JA. Using molecular epidemiology to track Toxoplasma gondii from terrestrial carnivores to marine hosts: implications for public health and conservation. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2014;8:e2852. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002852.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Verma R, Khanna P. Development of Toxoplasma gondii vaccine: a global challenge. Hum Vaccin Immunother. 2013;9:291–3.
Article CAS Google Scholar
Wingstrand A, Lind P, Haugegaard J, Henriksen SA, Bille-Hansen V, Sorensen V. Clinical observations, pathology, bioassay in mice and serological response at slaughter in pigs experimentally infected with Toxoplasma gondii. Vet Parasitol. 1997;72:129–40.
Article CAS Google Scholar

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Laboratory of Immunoparasitology (LAINPA), School of Veterinary Sciences, National University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
Gastón Moré, Maria Cecilia Venturini, Lais Pardini & Juan Manuel Unzaga
National Council of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET), CABA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Gastón Moré & Lais Pardini

Authors

Gastón Moré
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Maria Cecilia Venturini
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Lais Pardini
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar
Juan Manuel Unzaga
View author publications
You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gastón Moré .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Center for Research on Veterinary and Agronomic Sciences, National Institute of Agricultural Technology, Hurlingham, Argentina
Monica Florin-Christensen
National Council of Scientific and Technological Research (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
Leonhard Schnittger

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Moré, G., Venturini, M.C., Pardini, L., Unzaga, J.M. (2018). Toxoplasma . In: Florin-Christensen, M., Schnittger, L. (eds) Parasitic Protozoa of Farm Animals and Pets. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70132-5_6

Download citation

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70132-5_6
Published: 08 November 2017
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-70131-8
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-70132-5
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics