Abstract
In this chapter the real-time testing technique which has become known as real-time dynamic substructuring is discussed. A control systems approach is taken to develop stability and robustness criteria for real-time dynamic substructuring tests. In particular we discuss how delay and uncertainty effects in the experimental apparatus can lead to loss of accuracy, or worse, system instability. Models which take account of the delay effects are developed using both delay differential equations and transfer functions. From these models delay compensation schemes can be constructed either using inverse transfer functions or forward prediction methods. Three methods for improving robustness are described for use in combination with a delay compensator. Throughout the chapter experimental results are presented, and in the final part results from an industrial example of substructuring a helicopter lag damper are discussed in detail.
David Wagg is supported by an EPSRC Advanced Research Fellowship. The authors would also like to acknowledge the work of Max Wallace and Alicia Gonzalez-Buelga, who produced many of the experimental results shown in this chapter. MW was supported for his PhD studies by an EPSRC DTA and AGB is supported by EPSRC grant (GR/S49780). Peter Gawthrop is a Visiting Research Fellow at the University of Bristol.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.
Buying options
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Learn about institutional subscriptionsPreview
Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.
Bibliography
A. K. Agrawal and J. N. Yang. Compensation of time-delay for control of civil engineering structures. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 29:37–62, 2000.
W. Algaard, A. Agar, and N. Bicanic. Enhanced integral form of the newmark time stepping scheme for pseudodynamic testing. Engineering Computations, 18(3–4):676–689, 2001.
M Bacic. Hardware-in-the-loop simulation: Taxonomic framework, survery and new research directions. University of Oxford Report No. 2290/06, 2006.
V. Bayer, U. E. Dorka, U. Fullekrug, and J. Gschwilm. On real-time pseudo-dynamic sub-structure testing: algorithm, numerical and experimental results. Aerospace Science & Technology, 9(3):223–232, April 2005.
G. Benzoni. Challenges of new generation seismic testing facilities. Experimental Techniques, 25(2):20–23, 2001.
A. Blakeborough, M. S. Williams, A. P. Darby, and D. M. Williams. The development of real-time substructure testing. Philosopical Transactions of the Royal Society of London A, 359:1869–1891, 2001.
A. Bonelli and O.S. Bursi. Generalized-a methods for seismic structural testing. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 33(10):1067–1102, 2004.
P. A. Bonnet, C. N. Lim, M. S. Williams, A. Blakeborough, S. A. Neild, D. P. Stoten, and C. A. Taylor. Real-time hybrid experiments with new-mark integration, mscmd outer-loop control and multi-tasking strategies. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 36(1):119–141, January 2007.
T. Brendecke and F. Kucukay. Virtual real-time environment for automatic-transmission control units in the form of hardware-in-the-loop. Internationa Journal of Vehicle Design, 28(1–3):84–102, 2002.
O. S. Bursi, A. Gonzalez-Buelga, L. Vulcan, S. A. Neild, and D. J. Wagg. Novel coupling rosenbrock-based algorithms for real-time dynamic substructure testing. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics: In Press, 2007.
O. S. Bursi and P. B. Shing. Evaluation of some implicit time-stepping algorithms for pseudodynamic tests. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 25(4):333–355, 1996.
D. M. Bushnell. Scaling: Wind tunnel to flight. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 38:111–128, 2006.
S. Y. Chang. Improved numerical dissipation for explicit methods in pseudodynamic tests. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 26(9):917–929, September 1997.
S. Y. Chang. The gamma-function pseudodynamic algorithm. Journal of Earthquake Engineering, 4(3):303–320, July 2000.
S. Y. Chang. Explicit pseudodynamic algorithm with unconditional stability. Journal of Engineering Mechanics ASCE, 128(9):935–947, September 2002.
S. Y. Chang. Error propagation in implicit pseudodynamic testing of nonlinear systems. Journal of Engineering Mechanics ASCE, 131(12):1257–1269, December 2005.
S. Y. Chang, K. C. Tsai, and K. C. Chen. Improved time integration for pseudodynamic tests. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 27(7):711–730, July 1998.
S. Y. Chu, T. T. Soong, and A. M. Reinhorn. Active, hybrid and semi-active structural control. John Wiley: Chichester, England., 2005.
D. Combescure and P. Pegon. α-operator splitting time intergration technique for pseudodynamic testing error propergation analysis. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 16:427–443, 1997.
A. P. Darby, A. Blakeborough, and M. S. Williams. Real-time substructure tests using hydraulic actuator. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 125(10): 1133–1139, 1999.
A. P. Darby, A. Blakeborough, and M. S. Williams. Improved control algorithm for real-time substructure testing. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 30:431–448, 2001.
A. P. Darby, M. S. Williams, and A. Blakeborough. Stability and delay compensation for real-time substructure testing. ASCE Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 128(12):1276–1284, 2002.
J. de Carufel, E. Martin, and J. C. Piedboeuf. Control strategies for hardware-in-the-loop simulation of flexible space robots. IEE Proceedings-Control Theory and Applications, 147(6):569–579, November 2000.
O. Diekmann, S. van Gils, S. M. Verduyn Lunel, and H.O. Walther. Delay equations, volume 110. Applied Mathematical Sciences, 1995.
J. Donea, P. Magonette, P. Negro, P. Pegon, A. Pinto, and G. Verzeletti. Pseudodynamic capabilities of the elsa laboratory for earthquake testing of large structures. Earthquake Spectra, 12(1):163–180, 1996.
S. Driscoll, J. D. Huggins, and W. J. Book. Electric motors coupled to hydraulic motors as actuators for hydraulic hardware-in-the-loop simulation. In Proceedings of ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, number IMECE2005-82124, Orlando, Florida USA, November 5–11 2005.
K. Engelborghs, T. Luzyanina, and D. Roose. Numerical bifurication analysis of delay differential equations using dde-biftool. ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, 28(1): 1–21, 2002.
P. T. Faithfull, R. J. Ball, and R. P. Jones. An investigation into the use of hardware-in-the-loop simulation with a scaled physical prototype as an aid to design. Journal of Engineering Design, 12(3):231–243, September 2001.
H. K. Fathy, R. Ahlawat, and J. L. Stein. Proper powertrain modeling for engine-in-the-loop simulation. In Proceedings of the ASME International Engineering Congress and Exposition, number IMECE2005-81592, 2006.
J. A. Ferreira, F. G. Almeida, M. R. Quintas, and J. P. E. de Oliveira. Hybrid models for hardware-in-the-loop simulation of hydraulic systems part 1: theory. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part I-Journal of Systems and Control Engineering, 218(I6):465–474, September 2004a.
J. A. Ferreira, F. G. Almeida, M. R. Quintas, and J. P. E. de Oliveira. Hybrid models for hardware-in-the-loop simulation of hydraulic systems part 2: experiments. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part I-Journal of Systems and Control Engineering, 218(I6):475–486, September 2004b.
A. Ganguli, A. Deraemaeker, M. Horodinca, and A. Preumont. Active damping of chatter in machine toolsdemonstration with a ‘hardware-in-the-loop’ simulator. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Part I-Journal of Systems and Control Engineering, 219(I5):359–369, August 2005.
P. J. Gawthrop, Jones, R. W., and D. G. Sbarbaro. Emulator-based control and internal model control: complementary approaches to robust control design. Automatica, 32(8):1223–1227, August 1996.
P.J. Gawthrop, S.A. Neild, M.I. Wallace, and D.J. Wagg. Robust real-time substructuring techniques for lightly-damped systems. Journal of Structural Control & Health Monitoring, 14(4):591–608, 2007.
P.J. Gawthrop, M.I. Wallace, and D.J. Wagg. Bond-graph based substructuring of dynamical systems. Earthquake Engineering and Structrural Dynamics., 34(6):687–703, 2005.
A. Gonzalez-Buelga, D. J. Wagg, and S. A. Neild. Parametric variation of a coupled pendulum-oscillator system using real-time dynamic substructuring. Structural Control and Health Monitoring: In Press, 2007.
G. C. Goodwin, S. F. Graebe, and M. E. Salgado. Control System Design. Pearson, 2000.
K. S. Hong, H. C. Sohn, and J. K. Hedrick. Modified skyhook control of semi-active suspensions: A new model, gain scheduling, and hardware-in-the-loop tuning. Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control-Transactions of the ASME, 124(1):158–167, March 2002.
T. Horiuchi, M. Inoue, T. Konno, and Y. Namita. Real-time hybrid experimental system with actuator delay compensation and its application to a piping system with energy absorber. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 28:1121–1141, 1999.
W. Hu and N. M. Wereley. Magnetorheological fluid and elastomeric lag damper for helicopter stability augmentation. International Journal of Modern Physics B, 19(7–9):1471–1477, April 2005.
S. Jezernik. Hardware-in-the-loop simulation and analysis of magnetic recording of nerve activity. Journal of Neuroscience Methods, 142(2): 295–304, March 2005.
R. Y. Jung and P. B. Shing. Performance evaluation of a real-time pseudodynamic test system. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 35(7):789–810, June 2006.
D. L. Kunz. Elastomer modelling for use in predicting helicopter lag damper behavior. Journal of Sound & Vibration, 226(3):585–594, September 1999.
Y. N. Kyrychko, K. B. Blyuss, A. Gonzalez-Buelga, S. J. Hogan, and D.J. Wagg. Real-time dynamic substructuring in a coupled oscillatorpendulum system. Proceedings of the Royal Society A, 426(2068):1271–1294, 2005.
P. Lambrechts, M. Boerlage, and M. Steinbuch. Trajectory planning and feedforward design for electromechanical motion systems. Control Engineering Practice, 13(2):145–157, February 2005.
C.M. Lim, S.A. Neild, D.P. Stoten, C.A. Taylor, and D. Drury. Using adaptive control for dynamic substructuring tests. Proc. of the 3rd European Conf. on Structural Control, 2004.
Yu-Yuan Lin, Kuo-Chun Chang, and Yuan-Li Wang. Comparison of displacement coefficient method and capacity spectrum method with experimental results of re columns. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 33(1):35–48, 2004.
D. Maclay. Simulation gets into the loop. IEE Review, 43(3):109–112, May 1997.
S. P. Mansoor, D. I. Jones, D. A. Bradley, F. C. Aris, and G. R. Jones. Hardware-in-the-loop simulation of a pumped storage hydro station. International Jornal of Power and Energy Systems, 23(2):127–133, 2003.
S. McGreevy, T. T. Soong, and A. M. Reinhorn. An experimental study of time delay compensation in active structural control. In Proceedings of the 6th International Modal Analysis Conference-IMAC, volume 1, pages 733–739, 1988.
W. E. Misselhorn, N. J. Theron, and P. S. Els. Investigation of hardware-in-the-loop for use in suspension development. Vehicle System Dynamics, 44(1):65–81, anuary 2006.
M. Nakashima. Development, potential, and limitations of real-time online (pseudo dynamic) testing. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A, 359(1786):1851–1867, 2001.
M. Nakashima, H. Kato, and E. Takaoka. Development of real-time pseudo dynamic testing. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 21: 779–92, 1992.
M. Nakashima and N. Masaoka. Real-time on-line test for mdof systems. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 28:393–420, 1999.
S. A. Neild, D. P. Stoten, D. Drury, and D. J. Wagg. Control issues relating to real-time substructuring experiments using a shaking table. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 34:1171–1192, 2005.
P. Pan, M. Nakashima, and H. Tomofuji. Online test using displacement-force mixed control. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 34(8): 869–888, July 2005.
B. Panda, E. Mychalowycz, and F. J. Tarzanin. Application of passive dampers to modern helicopters. Smart Materials & Structures, 5(5): 509–516, October 1996.
A.V. Pinto, P. Pegon, G. Magonette, and G. Tsionis. Pseudo-dynamic testing of bridges using non-linear substructuring. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 33:1125–1146, 2004.
A. R. Plummer. Model-in-the-loop testing. Proc IMechE Part I-Journal of Systems and Control Engineering, 220(I3):183–199, May 2006.
A. Preumont. Vibration control of active structures. Kluwer: Dordrecht, 2002.
J. S. Prezemieniecki. Theory of matrix structural analysis. McGraw-Hill, 1968.
W. Rulka and E. Pankiewicz. Mbs approach to generate equations of motions for hil-simulations in vehicle dynamics. Multibody system dynamics, 14(3–4):367–386, November 2005.
R. T. Severn. Ecoest—european consortium of earthquake shaking tables— overview. In 10th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, pages 2987–2992. Balkema: Rotterdam, 1995.
P-S. Shing and S. A. Mahin. Cumulative experimental errors in pseudodynamic tests. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 15: 409–424, 1987.
P-S. Shing, M. T. Vannan, and E. Cater. Implicit time intergration for pseudodynamic tests. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 20:551–576, 1991.
M.V. Sivaselvan, A. Reinhorn, Z. Liang, and X. Shao. Real-time dynamic hybrid testing of structural systems. Proc. 13th World Conf. Earthquake Engineering, 2004.
E. C. Smith, K. Govindswamy, M. R. Beale, and G. A. Lesieutre. Formulation, validation, and application of a finite element model for elastomeric lag dampers. Journal of the American Helicopter Society, 41(3):247–256, July 1996.
T. T. Soong. Active Structural Control: Theory and Practice. Longman, London and Wiley, New York, 1990.
G. Stépan. Retarded Dynamical Systems: Stability and Characteristic Functions. Longman Scientific & Technical, 1989.
C. Thewalt and M. Roman. Performance parameters for pseudodynamic tests. Journal of Structural Engineering, 120(9):2768–2781, 1994.
D. J. Wagg and D. P. Stoten. Substructuring of dynamical systems via the adaptive minimal control synthesis algorithm. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 30:865–877, 2001.
M. Wallace, D.J. Wagg, and S.A. Neild. A stability analysis of substructured systems for real-time dynamic substructuring. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Advances in Experimental Structural Engineering, volume 1, pages 385–392, 2004a.
M. I. Wallace. Real-time dynamic substructuring for mechanical and aerospace applications: control techniques and experimental methods. PhD thesis, University of Bristol, 2006.
M. I. Wallace, D. J. Wagg, and S. A. Neild. Use of control techniques for error analysis of real time dynamic substructure testing. In Proceedings of the Third European Conference on Structural Control, volume 1, pages 59–62, 2004b.
M. I. Wallace, D. J. Wagg, S. A. Neild, P. C. Bunnis, N. A. Lieven, and A. J. Crewe. Testing coupled rotor blade-lag damper vibration dynamics using real-time dynamic substructuring. Journal of Sound and Vibration: In Press, 2007.
M.I. Wallace, J. Sieber, S. A. Neild, D.J. Wagg, and B. Krauskopf. Stability analysis of real-time dynamic substructuring using delay differential equation models. International Journal of Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 34(15):1817–1832, 2005a.
M.I. Wallace, D.J. Wagg, and S. A. Neild. An adaptive polynomial based forward prediction algorithm for multi-actuator real-time dynamic substructuring. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A., 461(2064): 3807–3826, 2005b.
T. Wang, M. Nakashima, and P. Pan. On-line hybrid test combining with general-purpose finite element software. Earthquake Engineering & Structural Dynamics, 35(12):1471–1488, October 2006.
B. Wu, G. Xu, Q. Wang, and M. S. Williams. Operator-splitting method for real-time substructure testing. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 35:293–314, 2006.
R. Zhang and A. G. Alleyne. Dynamic emulation using an indirect control input. Journal of Dynamic Systems Measurement and Control — Transactions of the ASME, 127(1):114–124, March 2005.
W. D. Zhu, S. Pekarek, J. Jatskevich, O. Wasynczuk, and D. Delisle. A model-in-the-loop interface to emulate source dynamics in a zonal dc distribution system. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 20(2): 438–445, March 2005.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2008 CISM, Udine
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Wagg, D., Neild, S., Gawthrop, P. (2008). Real-Time Testing With Dynamic Substructuring. In: Bursi, O.S., Wagg, D. (eds) Modern Testing Techniques for Structural Systems. CISM International Centre for Mechanical Sciences, vol 502. Springer, Vienna. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-211-09445-7_7
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-211-09445-7_7
Publisher Name: Springer, Vienna
Print ISBN: 978-3-211-09444-0
Online ISBN: 978-3-211-09445-7
eBook Packages: EngineeringEngineering (R0)