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Energy Transitions and the Future of Gas in the EU pp 199–273Cite as

Palgrave Macmillan

Decision Making Framework for Natural Gas Projects in the EU and on the Future Role of Gas

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Part of the book series: Energy, Climate and the Environment ((ECE))

Abstract

This chapter focuses on how the legal framework and decision-making process in the EU could promote de-politicisation of the market rules and decarbonisation of natural gas. It presents a critical and detailed account of the complex map of EU natural gas legislation, starting with a historical description of the gradual introduction of liberalisation with each energy package. The chapter then explains the present gas market architecture within the framework of the Third Energy Package, Gas Target Model and Network Codes. Finally, before concluding this book, it returns to the planned 2020 Gas Package and provides policy recommendations, including on the future of sector coupling, and explores alternatives pathways to promote incentives for technologies that can enable decarbonisation of the gas grid at scale.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel Community, 18.04.1951, 261 U.N.T.S. 140.

  2. 2.

    Treaty Establishing the European Economic Community, 25.03.1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 11.

  3. 3.

    Treaty Establishing the European Atomic Energy Community, 25.03.1957, 298 U.N.T.S. 167.

  4. 4.

    Single European Act, 1987 OJ L169/1.

  5. 5.

    At the time of writing, the UK remains a full member of the EU and rights and obligations continue to fully apply in and to the UK.

  6. 6.

    Treaty of Lisbon Amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community, 13.12.2007, 2007/C 306/01 (Lisbon Treaty).

  7. 7.

    Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union 2008 OJ C115/47 (TFEU).

  8. 8.

    Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union 2010 OJ C83/01 (TEU).

  9. 9.

    Article 194 TFEU.

  10. 10.

    Article 47 TEU.

  11. 11.

    Article 188 C Lisbon Treaty.

  12. 12.

    Peter Van Elsuwege, The EU’s Governance of External Energy Relations: The Challenges of a Rule-Based Market Approach, in D. Kochenov and F. Amtenbrink (eds.), The European Union’s Shaping of the International Legal Order (Cambridge University Press, 2013), 218.

  13. 13.

    Ulrich Ehricke and Daniel Hackländer, European Energy Policy on the Basis of the New Provisions in the Treaty of Lisbon, in A. Bausch and B. Schwenker (eds.), Handbook Utility Management (Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer, 2009).

  14. 14.

    For a detailed examination of implementation of EU Competition law and policy in the energy sector, see Peter D. Cameron and Michael Brothwood, Competition in Energy Markets: Law and Regulation in the European Union (Oxford University Press, 2002) (for pre-Second Energy Package period) and Peter D. Cameron, Competition in Energy Markets: Law and Regulation in the European Union (Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, 2007).

  15. 15.

    DG Competition Report on Energy Sector Inquiry, 10.01.2007, SEC (2006) 1724.

  16. 16.

    Summary of Commission Decision of 8 July 2009 relating to a proceeding under Article 81 of the EC Treaty (Case COMP/39.401—E.ON/GDF) (notified under document C (2009) 5355 final) (2009/C 248/05).

  17. 17.

    In particular, the Commission found that the agreement between the two undertakings infringed Article 81(1) of the Treaty Establishing European Community (EC Treaty) (Article 101 of the TFEU), which prohibits concerted practices that restrict competition.

  18. 18.

    Directorate General for Internal Policies, Policy Department A: Economic and Scientific Policy: Competition Policy and an Internal Energy Market, July 2017, available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/607327/IPOL_STU(2017)607327_EN.pdf.

  19. 19.

    The case was brought under Article 82 of the EC Treaty (Article 102 of the TFEU) which concerns abuse of dominant position. Commission Decision of 18 III 2009 relating to a proceeding under Article 82 of the EC Treaty and Article 54 of the EEA Agreement (Case COMP/39.402—RWE Gas Foreclosure).

  20. 20.

    European Commission, Press release, Antitrust: Commission Opens Proceedings Against Gazprom, 04.09.2018, available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-12-937_en.htm?locale=en.

  21. 21.

    CASE AT.39816—Upstream Gas Supplies in Central and Eastern Europe, Antitrust Procedure, Council Regulation (EC) 1/2003, Article 9 Regulation (EC) 1/2003, 24.05.2018.

  22. 22.

    Special Report No. 16/2015: Improving the Security of Energy Supply by Developing the Internal Energy Market: More Efforts Needed, available at: http://www.eca.europa.eu/Lists/ECADocuments/SR15_16/SR_ENERGY_SECURITY-EN.pdf.

  23. 23.

    Art. 2(1) Transit Directive.

  24. 24.

    Art. 2(3) First Gas Directive.

  25. 25.

    Art. 15 and Art. 16 First Gas Directive.

  26. 26.

    Art. 17 First Gas Directive.

  27. 27.

    Art. 24 First Gas Directive.

  28. 28.

    Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan.

  29. 29.

    ECT was opened for signature in Lisbon 17 December 1994 and entered into force on 16 April 1998. See ECT’s home page available at: http://www.encharter.org/.

  30. 30.

    Thomas W. Walde (ed.), The Energy Charter Treaty: An East-West Gateway for Investment & Trade (1996).

  31. 31.

    Regulation (EC) No. 1775/2005 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 September 2005 on conditions for access to the natural gas transmission networks.

  32. 32.

    Art. 18 Second Gas Directive.

  33. 33.

    Recital 13 and Art. 25 Second Gas Directive.

  34. 34.

    Art. 21 Second Gas Directive.

  35. 35.

    Art. 22 Second Gas Directive.

  36. 36.

    Sergei Vinogradov and Gokce Mete, Cross-Border Oil and Gas Pipelines in International Law, German Yearbook of International Law (2014), p. 56.

  37. 37.

    Kim Talus, Just What Is the Scope of the Essential Facilities Doctrine in the Energy Sector? Third Party Access-Friendly Interpretation in the EU v. Contractual Freedom in the US, Common Market Law Review, Volume 48, Issue 5 (2011), pp. 1571–1597.

  38. 38.

    Luca Franza, Outlook for Russian Pipeline Gas Imports into the EU to 2025, Clingendael International Energy Programme, The Hague, the Netherlands (2016).

  39. 39.

    Although the Clean Energy Package followed the Third Energy Package, it is not a marker regulation per se. The first three packages can be described as market packages because the aim is to create a market; with the Clean Energy Package the objective is different as it focus more towards consumers. Further, the electricity directive that came under the Clean Energy Package is not a new regulation but a revision of the rules.

  40. 40.

    Gas Directive.

  41. 41.

    Regulation 1775.

  42. 42.

    Acer Regulation.

  43. 43.

    COM (2007) 724 of 20 November 2007.

  44. 44.

    MEMO/07/15 of 10 January 2007.

  45. 45.

    Kim Talus, EU Energy Law and Policy: A Critical Account.

  46. 46.

    The Third Energy Package Includes: Acer Regulation, Regulation 1775, Gas Directive.

  47. 47.

    Regulation 1775.

  48. 48.

    Art. 36 Third Gas Directive.

  49. 49.

    EC Press release, 2030 Climate and energy Goals for a Competitive, Secure and Low-Carbon EU Economy, availabe at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-54_en.htm.

  50. 50.

    Art. 32–35 Gas Directive.

  51. 51.

    Commission Regulation No. 984/2013 of 14 October 2013 establishing a Network Code on Capacity Allocation Mechanisms in Gas Transmission Systems and supplementing Regulation (EC) No. 715/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council [2013] OJ L273/5.

  52. 52.

    Commission Regulation (EU) No. 312/2014 of 26 March 2014 establishing a Network Code on Gas Balancing of Transmission Networks [2013] OJ L91/15.

  53. 53.

    Art. 7 Second Gas Directive.

  54. 54.

    Art. 10 Gas Directive.

  55. 55.

    Art. 9 Gas Directive.

  56. 56.

    See Gazprom MT’s website available at: http://www.gazprom-mt.com/.

  57. 57.

    Art. 36 Gas Directive.

  58. 58.

    European Commission Opinion of 17.10.2014 correcting Opinion C(2014) 5483 final of 28 July 2014 pursuant to Article 3(1) of Regulation (EC) No. 715/2009 and Article 10(6) and 11(6) of Directive 2009/73/EC—Greece—Certification of DESFA, Brussels, 17.10.2014, C(2014) 7734 final.

  59. 59.

    WT/DS476/2.a, European Union and Its Member States—Certain Measures Relating to the Energy Sector, available at: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds476_e.htm.

  60. 60.

    WT/DS476/2.a, European Union and Its Member States—Certain Measures Relating to the Energy Sector, available at: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/cases_e/ds476_e.htm.

  61. 61.

    Press release, Fluxys, The Snam, Enagás, Fluxys Consortium Completes the Acquisition of 66% of the Greek Operator DESFA, 20.12.2018, available at: https://www.fluxys.com/en/press-releases/fluxys-group/2018/181220_press_acquisition_desfa.

  62. 62.

    Art. 11(5)a Gas Directive.

  63. 63.

    Art. 11(5)b Gas Directive.

  64. 64.

    Art. 36 Gas Directive.

  65. 65.

    The list of exemption decision from the Third Energy Package could is accessible via: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/exemption_decisions2018.pdf.

  66. 66.

    Tjarda van der Vijver, Third Party Access Exemption Policy in the EU Gas and Electricity Sectors: Finding the Right Balance Between Competition and Investments, in Martha M. Roggenkamp et al. (ed.), Energy Networks and the Law: Innovative Solutions in Changing Markets (Oxford University Press, 2012).

  67. 67.

    European Commission Delays Ruling on New Gazprom Bid for German Gas Link Opal Use, Platts, 14 July 2016, https://www.platts.com/latest-news/natural-gas/brussels/european-commission-delays-ruling-on-new-gazprom-26492211.

  68. 68.

    PGNiG’s German subsidiary (PGNiG Supply & Trading GmbH) vs EC (4 December 2016, case T-849/16); Poland vs EC (16 December 2016, case T-883/16); PGNiG vs EC (1 March 2017, case T-130/17).

  69. 69.

    The President of the General Court rejects the applications for a stay of execution of the Commission’s decision that 50% of the transport capacities of the OPAL gas pipeline are to be subject to a bidding procedure, General Court of the European Union, Press release No. 83/17 Luxembourg, 21 July 2017, Order of the President of the General Court in Cases T-849/16 R, T-883/16 R and T-130/17 R PGNiG Supply & Trading GmbH, Poland, and Polskie Górnictwo Naftowe i Gazownictwo S.A. v Commission.

  70. 70.

    Press Release, General Court of the European Union no 107/19, Luxembourg, 10 September 2019, Judgment in Case T-883/16, Poland v Commission, available at: https://curia.europa.eu/jcms/upload/docs/application/pdf/2019-09/cp190107en.pdf.

  71. 71.

    Katja Yafimava, The OPAL Exemption Decision: Past, Present, and Future (OIES, 2017).

  72. 72.

    EC Decision of 16.5.2013 on the exemption of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline from the requirements on third party access, tariff regulation and ownership unbundling laid down in Articles 9, 32, 41(6), 41(8) and 41(10) of Directive 2009/73/EC, https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/2013_tap_decision_en.pdf.

  73. 73.

    EC Decision of 17.3.2015 prolonging the exemption of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline from certain requirements on third party access, tariff regulation and ownership unbundling laid down in Articles 9, 32, 41(6), (8) and (10) of Directive 2009/73/EC, https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/2015_tap_prolongation_decision_en.pdf.

  74. 74.

    EC Decision 2012/994 of 25 October 2012 OJ 2012 L, 13. Press release, available at: http://www.europeanvoice.com/art./2013/december/south-stream-must-be-renegotiated-commission/78982.aspx.

  75. 75.

    The construction of the pipeline nevertheless continues. The Third Energy Package does not contain a provision requiring termination of the construction. However if the participating States refuse to renegotiate the terms of the bilateral IGAs, once the hydrocarbon transmission starts problems may arise on booking capacity by third parties. At this point the EU might start infringement procedures. See reporting by ITAR-TASS, Interfax, RFE/RL Brussels correspondent Rikard Jowziak, and B92.net on 13 December 2013, available at: http://www.rferl.org/content/eu-renegotiate-south-stream/25191193.html.

  76. 76.

    Press release, available at: http://eurodialogue.org/EU-countries-ask-for-help-to-escape-from-South-Stream-mess.

  77. 77.

    Russian Prime Minister Dmitry Medvedev told that “Legal acts of the EU are considered to be national laws for the countries of the EU […] (while) intergovernmental agreements, signed by [countries] of the EU are acts of international law. On the whole, there is a rule of precedence of international law over national law. We only understand it this way”, News release, available at: http://www.naturalgaseurope.com/south-stream-eu-laws.

  78. 78.

    Agreement on partnership and cooperation establishing a partnership between the European Communities and their Member States, of one part, and the Russian Federation, of the other part—Protocol 1 on the establishment of a coal and steel contact group—Protocol 2 on mutual administrative assistance for the correct application of customs legislation, OJ L327, 28/11/1997, Article 34.

  79. 79.

    Agreement on partnership and cooperation establishing a partnership between the European Communities and their Member States, of one part, and the Russian Federation, of the other part—Protocol 1 on the establishment of a coal and steel contact group—Protocol 2 on mutual administrative assistance for the correct application of customs legislation, OJ L327, 28/11/1997, Article 65.

  80. 80.

    Study on Entry–Exit Regimes in Gas, Part A: Implementation of Entry–Exit Systems, DNV KEMA. By order of the European Commission—DG ENERGY, 11.12.2013, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/201307-entry-exit-regimes-in-gas-parta.pdf.

  81. 81.

    Study on the conditionalities stipulated in contracts for standard capacity products for firm capacity sold by gas TSOs, ACER/OP/ADMIN/13/2017/LOT 2/RFS 01, Final Study, 03.04.2019, available at: https://www.acer.europa.eu/Official_documents/Publications/AnnexestotheACERReportontheconditionalitiesstipula/Underlying%20consultant%20study.pdf.

  82. 82.

    Case C-198/12, JUDGMENT OF THE COURT (Fifth Chamber), Failure of a Member State to fulfil obligations—Internal market in energy—Gas transmission—Regulation (EC) No. 715/2009—Articles 14(1) and 16(1) and (2)(b)—Obligation to guarantee maximum capacity—Virtual reverse flow gas capacity—Admissibility), 5 June 2014. ACTION under Article 258 TFEU for failure to fulfil obligations, brought on 26 April 2012.

  83. 83.

    Study on Entry–Exit Regimes in Gas, Part A: Implementation of Entry–Exit Systems, DNV KEMA. By Order of the European Commission—DG ENERGY, 11.12.2013, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/201307-entry-exit-regimes-in-gas-parta.pdf.

  84. 84.

    ACER which was established by rule 713/2009, is the European organisation of energy regulators.

  85. 85.

    ENTSOG (European Network of Transmission System Operators for Gas), the European association representing TSO’s and gathering 42 members in 25 countries, was created by directive 715/2009 in 2009.

  86. 86.

    Under comitology, before the reforms introduced by the Lisbon Treaty, the Commission is assisted by a committee of Member States representatives and decisions are taken according to different procedures defined in EU law. In the case of the regulatory procedure, the Commission submits its proposal to the Council only when the committee disagrees. The European Parliament must be informed and gives an opinion to the Council. The Council finally acts by qualified majority on the proposal. A comitology committee is not allowed to change the substance of a proposal, and they need a two-thirds majority in order to reject it. If approved by the committee, the EU network codes become annexed to the relevant regulation. If the proposal is rejected, the Commission may resubmit or present a legislative proposal on the basis of the EU Treaty.

  87. 87.

    CAM NC, Art. 11(3).

  88. 88.

    CAM NC, Art. 8(8).

  89. 89.

    Regulation 1775, Art. 18(3).

  90. 90.

    CAM NC, Art. 3(4).

  91. 91.

    CAM NC, Art. 6.

  92. 92.

    The European Federation of Energy Traders (EFET), An EFET Position Paper: Advancing the EU Internal Energy Market: Sector Priorities for the Juncker Commission, 12.11.2014, availabe at: http://www.efet.org/.

  93. 93.

    Commission Decision of 24 August 2012 on amending Annex I to Regulation (EC) No. 715/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council on conditions for access to the natural gas transmission networks (2012/490/EU).

  94. 94.

    Regulation 715, Annex I, guidelines on congestion-management procedures in the event of contractual congestion, para. 2.2.

  95. 95.

    Implementation Monitoring Report on Congestion Management Procedures in 13.01.2015, ACER, available at: http://www.acer.europa.eu/.

  96. 96.

    ACER, 2019 Annual Report on Contractual Congestion at Interconnection Points, 27.05.2019, available at: https://www.acer.europa.eu/Official_documents/Acts_of_the_Agency/Publication/Congestion%20Report%206th%20ed_27052019_FINAL.pdf.

  97. 97.

    The Energy Community is also committed to apply the TEP, but each NC has to be approved separately and to be transposed in national law.

  98. 98.

    Commission Regulation (EU) 2017/460 of 16 March 2017 establishing a network code on harmonised transmission tariff structures for gas, C/2017/1657, OJ L72.

  99. 99.

    Framework Guidelines on rules regarding harmonised transmission tariff structures for gas, 29 November 2013, prepared by Agency for the Cooperation of Energy Regulators (ACER).

  100. 100.

    Commission Regulation (EU) No. 312/2014 of 26 March 2014 establishing a Network Code on Gas Balancing of Transmission Networks.

  101. 101.

    ACER Report on the implementation of the Balancing Network Code (3rd edition), 06.08.2018, available at: https://www.acer.europa.eu/Official_documents/Acts_of_the_Agency/Publication/ACER%20Report%20on%20the%20implementation%20of%20the%20Balancing%20Network%20Code%20(Third%20edition).pdf.

  102. 102.

    ACER, Public Consultation on the Bridge Beyond 2025 (Consultation period: 23 July 2019–1 September 2019), available at: https://www.acer.europa.eu/Official_documents/Public_consultations/PC_2019_G_06/The%20Bridge%20beyond%202025%20-%20PC_2019_G_06.pdf.

  103. 103.

    Gokce Mete, The EU Network Codes and Prospects of Cross-Border Natural Gas Pipeline Projects, in R.J. Heffron and G. Little (eds.), Delivering Energy Law and Policy in the EU and US: A Reader (UK: Edinburgh University Press, 2016).

  104. 104.

    Regulation (EU) 2018/1999 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on the Governance of the Energy Union and Climate Action, amending Regulations (EC) No. 663/2009 and (EC) No. 715/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council, Directives 94/22/EC, 98/70/EC, 2009/31/EC, 2009/73/EC, 2010/31/EU, 2012/27/EU and 2013/30/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, Council Directives 2009/119/EC and (EU) 2015/652 and repealing Regulation (EU) No. 525/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council, 21.12.2018 OJ L328.

  105. 105.

    Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament and the Council on the short term resilience of the European gas system Preparedness for a possible disruption of supplies from the East during the fall and winter of 2014/2015 Brussels, 16.10.2014, COM (2014) 654 final.

  106. 106.

    The Southern Gas Corridor is a term used to describe the European Commission’s 2008 initiative to bring gas supplies from the Caspian and Middle East regions to Europe (Second Strategic Energy Review—An EU Energy Security and Solidarity Action Plan” (COM/2008/781)). Today, it denotes a planned infrastructure project, which will make a 3500 km journey from the Caspian Sea to Europe, crossing seven countries, and aimed at improving the security and diversity of the EU’s energy supply.

  107. 107.

    Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee, the Committee of the Regions and the European Investment Bank, State of the Energy Union 2015, Brussels, 18.11.2015, COM (2015) 572 final.

  108. 108.

    Sixty-ninth session, item 19 (i) of the provisional agenda, sustainable development: promotion of new and renewable sources of energy. Reliable and stable transit of energy and its role in ensuring sustainable development and international cooperation, report of the Secretary-General, 12.08.14 (A/69/309), available at: http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/309&Lang=E.

  109. 109.

    Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 17 May 2013, 67/263, Reliable and stable transit of energy and its role in ensuring sustainable development and international cooperation, available at: http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/67/263.

  110. 110.

    The 2015 IEC political declaration is available at: https://energycharter.org/process/international-energy-charter-2015/overview/.

  111. 111.

    This is also underlined as part of Sustainable Development Goal 7 on ensuring access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all, https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg7.

  112. 112.

    ECT was opened for signature in Lisbon 17.12.1994 and entered into force on 16.04.1998. It evolved through a non-legally binding political declaration of the European Energy Charter Conference. See Energy Charter’s home page available at: http://www.encharter.org/.

  113. 113.

    Today the ECT has 54 contracting parties. For more information on signatories available at: http://www.encharter.org/index.php?id=6.

  114. 114.

    According to Art. 1(3) ECT, “[a] ‘Regional Economic Integration Organization’ means an organisation constituted by states to which they have transferred competence over certain matters a number of which are governed by this Treaty, including the authority to take decisions binding on them in respect of those matters”.

  115. 115.

    The Russian Federation signed the ECT and applied it provisionally until the 18 October 2009 inclusive. Detailed information on members and observers of the ECT can be found at: http://www.encharter.org/index.php?id=61.

  116. 116.

    Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan have observer status and are currently negotiating their accession to the WTO.

  117. 117.

    Notably, Afghanistan became a member of the ECT in 2013.

  118. 118.

    WTO Agreement: Marrakesh Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization, 15 April 1994, 1867 U.N.T.S. 154, 33 I.L.M. 1144 (1994). More information on energy services covered by the WTO can be found at: https://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/energy_e/energy_e.htm.

  119. 119.

    Energy Charter Model Agreements for Cross-Border Pipelines could be accessed at: https://energycharter.org/what-we-do/trade-and-transit/model-agreements/.

  120. 120.

    Treaty Establishing the Energy Community (2015), available at: https://www.energy-community.org/legal/treaty.html.

  121. 121.

    Concurrent Members include, GATT & ECT: Turkey, Ukraine, Georgia, Tajikistan, each EU Member State and the EU, EnCT & ECT: Ukraine, Moldova, Bosnia Herzegovina, Albania and the EU, EnCT & WTO: Ukraine, Moldova, Montenegro, Albania and the EU, EU acquis (TEP): EU Member States and potential third countries where the legislation may be applicable.

  122. 122.

    Further details regarding the membership structure and the functioning of the Energy Community can be found via its home page at: https://www.energy-community.org/.

  123. 123.

    EnCT Art. 2(1) and Preamble of the EnCT.

  124. 124.

    EnCT Art. 95.

  125. 125.

    Art. 6 and 7 of the EnCT.

  126. 126.

    Art. 44 EnCT.

  127. 127.

    EnCT Art. 5.

  128. 128.

    Art. 3(a) and (b) EnCT.

  129. 129.

    Art. 25 EnCT.

  130. 130.

    Decision on the implementation of Directive 2009/72/EC, Directive 2009/73/EC, Regulation (EC) No. 714/2009 and Regulation (EC) No. 715/2009 and amending Articles 11 and 59 of the Energy Community Treaty.

  131. 131.

    Energy Community, State of Implementation Report 2018, available at: https://www.energy-community.org/implementation/IR2018.html.

  132. 132.

    Press release, The European Commission, EU agrees rules to manage investor-state disputes, 28.08.14, available at: http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-14-951_en.htm.

  133. 133.

    Decision No. 994/2012/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2012 establishing an information exchange mechanism with regard to intergovernmental agreements between Member States and third countries in the field of energy.

  134. 134.

    Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Concerning measures to safeguard the security of gas supply and repealing Regulation (EU) No. 994/2010 Brussels, 16.2.2016; Proposal for a Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council on establishing an information exchange mechanism with regard to intergovernmental agreements and non-binding instruments between Member States and third countries in the field of energy and repealing Decision No. 994/2012/EU, Brussels, 16.2.2016.

  135. 135.

    Decision (EU) 2017/684 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2017 on establishing an information exchange mechanism with regard to intergovernmental agreements and non-binding instruments between Member States and third countries in the field of energy, and repealing Decision No. 994/2012/EU, OJ L99.

  136. 136.

    European Union Press release, EU Starts Negotiations on Caspian Pipeline to Bring Gas to Europe, 12.09.2011, available at: https://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-11-1023_en.htm.

  137. 137.

    Leaked opinion of the legal service dated 27 September 2018 is available at: http://www.politico.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/SPOLITICO-17092812480.pdf.

  138. 138.

    Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning measures to safeguard the security of gas supply and repealing Regulation (EU) No. 994/2010, COM/2016/052 final—2016/030 (COD).

  139. 139.

    Regulation (EU) 2017/1938 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2017 concerning measures to safeguard the security of gas supply and repealing Regulation (EU) No. 994/2010, OJ L280.

  140. 140.

    European Union, commission staff working document impact assessment multilateral reform of investment dispute resolution Accompanying the document Recommendation for a Council Decision authorising the opening of negotiations for a Convention establishing a multilateral court for the settlement of investment dispute, SWD(2017) 302 final, Brussels, 13.9.2017, available at: https://ec.europa.eu/transparency/regdoc/rep/10102/2017/EN/SWD-2017-302-F1-EN-MAIN-PART-1.PDF; European Parliament, Multilateral court for the settlement of investment disputes, Ulla-Mari Tuomine, 24.11.2017, available at: http://www.europarl.europa.eu/thinktank/en/document.html?reference=EPRS_BRI(2017)611016.

  141. 141.

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Mete, G. (2020). Decision Making Framework for Natural Gas Projects in the EU and on the Future Role of Gas. In: Energy Transitions and the Future of Gas in the EU. Energy, Climate and the Environment. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32614-2_6

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