Introduction: In the Midst of Global Power Shifts

Ohnesorge, Hendrik W.

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29922-4_1

Hendrik W. Ohnesorge¹⁰

Part of the book series: Global Power Shift ((GLOBAL))

2479 Accesses
1 Citations

Abstract

The chapter identifies the existence of two different yet interconnected global power shifts as crucially shaping the nature of international relations today. First, the phenomenon of power transitions, that is, the shifting power positions of nation-states or regions, which has always been a feature in the international affairs, is identified as having gained new momentum in recent years, especially due to the much-debated rise of China. Second, a variety of different developments has increasingly led to ever-greater power diffusion, resulting in an unprecedented dispersion of power among different actors and actor types on the international stage.

Against the backdrop of these developments, the author identifies the phenomenon of soft power as becoming increasingly important in our global information age. Proceeding from a review of existing literature on the concept of (soft) power, he identifies pivotal research gaps in this regard, including the need for a more substantiated and sophisticated understanding of the concept itself as well as a demand for methodologically sound approaches to the empirical study of the workings of soft power in international relations today.

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Notes

1.
Bob Hancké, “The Challenge of Research Design,” in Theory and Methods in Political Science, eds. David Marsh and Gerry Stoker (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 236.
2.
Friedrich Dürrenmatt, “Kunst und Wissenschaft,” in Versuche/Kants Hoffnung: Essays und Reden (Zürich: Diogenes, 1998), p. 75.
3.
Thomas Geschwend and Frank Schimmelfennig, “Introduction: Designing Research in Political Science – A Dialogue between Theory and Data,” in Research Design in Political Science: How to Practice What They Preach, eds. Thomas Geschwend and Frank Schimmelfennig (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), p. 3.
4.
Gary King, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp. 15–19; Geschwend and Schimmelfennig, “Introduction,” p. 3.
5.
Matthias Lehnert, Bernhard Miller, and Arndt Wonka, “Increasing the Relevance of Research Questions: Considerations on Theoretical and Social Relecance in Social Science,” in Research Design in Political Science: How to Practice What They Preach, eds. Thomas Geschwend and Frank Schimmelfennig (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 23–27.
6.
Lehnert, Miller, and Wonka, “Increasing the Relevance of Research Questions,” p. 28.
7.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., The Future of Power (New York, N.Y.: PublicAffairs, 2011), p. xv.
8.
Nye, The Future of Power, pp. 153–204.
9.
The most famous expression of this view can arguably be found in Ovid’s Metamorphoses (I, 89–150), a passage which opens with famed line, “Aurea prima sata est” (Ov. Met. I, 89); Ovid (P. Ovidius Naso), Matamorphosen/Metamorphoseon Libri (München: Artemis & Winkler, 1992), p. 10.
10.
Herodotus, The History, Translated from the Ancient Greece by George Rawlinson, Volume I (New York, N.Y.: The Tandy-Thomas Company, 1909), p. 31 (Hdt. I, 5).
11.
Peter Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History (London: Pan Books, 2006), pp. 228–232.
12.
Quoted in Vincent Cronin, The Florentine Renaissance (London: Pimlico, 1992), p. 300.
13.
Henry Kissinger, World Order: Reflections on the Character of Nations and the Course of History (London: Allen Lane, 2014), p. 11.
14.
Norman Davies, Vanished Kingdoms: The Rise and Fall of States and Nations (New York, N.Y.: Viking, 2011), p. 5.
15.
Tony Blair, “Address by the Right Honorable Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,” Washington, D.C., July 13, 2003, in Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 108^thCongress, First Session, Vol. 149 – Part 14, July 17, 2003 to July 25, 2003 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 2003), p. 18598.
16.
Rudyard Kipling, “Recessional,” The Times, July 17, 1897, p. 13.
17.
Henry Kissinger, On China (London: Allen Lane, 2011), p. 514. See also Nye, The Future of Power, p. 179 and Gordon H. Chang, Fateful Ties: A History of America’s Preoccupation with China (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2015), p. 9.
18.
The BRICS states include Brazil, Russia, India, the People’s Republic China, and South Africa. The term (first styled as BRIC and soon to be augmented by the addition of South Africa) was coined in 2001, see Jim O’Neill, “Building Better Global Economic BRICs,” Global Economics Paper No: 66, Goldman Sachs, November 30, 2001, online at: http://www.goldmansachs.com/our-thinking/archive/archive-pdfs/build-better-brics.pdf (accessed September 4, 2017).
19.
James F. Hodge, Jr., “A Global Power Shift in the Making,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 4 (July/August 2004), pp. 2–7.
20.
Fareed Zakaria, “The Future of American Power: How America Can Survive the Rise of the Rest,” Foreign Affairs, Vol. 87, No. 3 (May/June 2008), p. 42; the previous two shifts having been the rise of the Western world from the beginning of Early Modern Age until Enlightenment and the rise of the United States in the late 19^th century; see also Fareed Zakaria, The Post-American World: And the Rise of the Rest (London: Penguin Books, 2009).
21.
Christopher Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 72.
22.
Stephen G. Brooks and William C. Wohlforth, America Abroad: The United States’ Global Role in the 21^stCentury (New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 3.
23.
Zakaria, “The Future of American Power,” p. 43.
24.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York: PublicAffairs, 2004), p. 68.
25.
R. S. Zaharna, The Cultural Awakening in Public Diplomacy, CPD Perspectives on Public Diplomacy, Paper 4, 2012 (Los Angeles, Cal.: Figueroa Press, 2012), p. 42.
26.
Richard Falk, Power Shift: On the New Global Order (London: Zed Books, 2016), p. 13.
27.
Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 66.
28.
Kostas Ifantis, “Soft Power: Overcoming the Limits of a Concept,” in Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft, ed. B. J. C. McKercher (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), p. 444.
29.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The War on Soft Power,” Foreign Policy, April 12, 2011, online at: http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/04/12/the-war-on-soft-power/ (accessed September 4, 2017).
30.
Eliot A. Cohen, “Is Trump Ending the American Era?,” The Atlantic (October 2017), p. 71.
31.
Matthew Fraser, Weapons of Mass Distraction: Soft Power and American Empire (New York, N.Y.: St. Martin’s Press, 2003), p. 9.
32.
Nye, The Future of Power, pp. 113–151.
33.
Werner Weidenfeld, America and Europe: Is the Break Inevitable? (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann Foundation Publishers, 1996), pp. 19–20.
34.
Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Price of America’s Empire (New York, N.Y.: Penguin Press, 2004), p. 298.
35.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990), p. 182.
36.
Nye, The Future of Power, p. 114.
37.
Laura Roselle, Alister Miskimmon, and Ben O’Loughlin, “Strategic Narrative: A New Means to Understand Soft Power,” Media, War & Conflict, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2014), p. 75.
38.
Edward Bulwer-Lytton, Richelieu; Or, The Conspiracy: A Play, in Five Acts (London: Saunders and Otley, 1839), p. 39.
39.
Claudia Auer, Alice Srugies, and Martin Löffelholz, “Schlüsselbegriffe der internationalen Diskussion: Public Diplomacy und Soft Power,” in Kultur und Außenpolitik: Handbuch für Wissenschaft und Praxis, ed. Kurt-Jürgen Maaß (Baden Baden: Nomos Verlagsgesellschaft, 2015), p. 39.
40.
John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, The Emergence of Noopolitik: Toward an American Information Strategy (Santa Monica, Cal.: RAND Corporation, 1999), p. 53.
41.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The Future of Soft Power in US Foreign Policy,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 8.
42.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The Changing Nature of World Power,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 105, No. 2 (Summer 1990), p. 179.
43.
Ali S. Wyne, “Public Opinion and Power,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 43.
44.
Falk, Power Shift, p. 15.
45.
Nye, The Future of Power, p. 231.
46.
Ifantis, “Soft Power,” p. 444.
47.
Byung-Chul Han, Was ist Macht? (Stuttgart: Reclam, 2005), pp. 120–121.
48.
Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 190
49.
Wyne, “Public Opinion and Power,” p. 42.
50.
Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston, Mass.: Little Brown and Company, 1977).
51.
Falk, Power Shift, p. 10.
52.
See, for example, Xuewu Gu, “Ist Globalität gestaltbar?,” in Bonner Enzyklopädie der Globalität, eds. Ludger Kühnhardt and Tilman Mayer (Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien, 2017), p. 1537.
53.
Eytan Gilboa, “Searching for a Theory of Public Diplomacy,” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol. 616, Public Diplomacy in a Changing World, No. 1 (March 2008), p. 56; see also p. 60.
54.
Nye, Bound to Lead, p. 33 & p. 188.
55.
Benjamin R. Barber, “McWorld vs. Jihad,” The Atlantic Monthly (March 1992), online at: http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1992/03/jihad-vs-mcworld/303882/ (accessed September 4, 2017).
56.
Giulio M. Gallarotti, Cosmopolitan Power in International Relations: A Synthesis of Realism, Neoliberalism, and Constructivism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), pp. 38–42.
57.
See, for example, Jan Melissen, “The New Public Diplomacy: Between Theory and Practice,” in The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations, ed. Jan Melissen (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), p. 4 and David Ronfeldt and John Arquilla, “Noopolitik: A New Paradigm for Public Diplomacy,” in Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy, eds. Nancy Snow and Philip M. Taylor (New York, N.Y.: Routledge, 2009), p. 353.
58.
Simon Anholt, “Soft Power,” Internationale Politik (January/February 2014), p. 49.
59.
Nye, Soft Power, p. 1.
60.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 226.
61.
Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 58.
62.
Gitika Commuri, “‘Are You Pondering What I am Pondering?’ Understanding the Conditions Under Which States Gain and Loose Soft Power,” in Power in the 21st Century: International Security and International Political Economy in a Changing World, eds. Enrico Fels, Jan-Frederik Kremer, and Katharina Kronenberg (Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 2012), p. 43.
63.
Michael Mandelbaum, Mission Failure: America and the World in the Post-Cold War Era (New York, N.Y.: Oxford University Press, 2016), p. 375.
64.
Su Changhe, “Soft Power,” in The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy, eds. Andrew F. Cooper, Jorge Heine, and Ramesh Thakur (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 544.
65.
Searches were conducted by the author on April 17, 2019.
66.
Fraser, Weapons of Mass Distraction, p. 13.
67.
Janice Bially Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft: Representational Force and the Sociolinguistic Construction of Attraction in World Politics,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 33, No. 3 (2005), p. 589; Su, “Soft Power,” pp. 547–548 & p. 554.
68.
Hancké, “The Challenge of Research Design,” pp. 232–233.
69.
Friedrich Nietzsche, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks. Translated, with an Introduction by Marianne Cowan (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Publishing, 1962), p. 30.
70.
Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2005), p. 70.
71.
See below, Sect. 2.1.
72.
Edith Hall, “Adventures in Ancient Greek and Roman Libraries,” in The Meaning of the Library: A Cultural History, ed. Alice Crawford (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2015), p. 24.
73.
Robert Graves, I, Claudius (London: Collectors Library, 2013), p. 169.
74.
Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 53.
75.
See below, Sect. 2.5.1.
76.
Ifantis, “Soft Power,” p. 441.
77.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power (New York: Basic Books, 1990).
78.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., “The Changing Nature of World Power,” Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 105, No. 2 (Summer 1990), pp. 177–192; Joseph S. Nye, Jr. “Soft Power,” Foreign Policy, No. 80 (Autumn 1990), pp. 153–171.
79.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics (New York, N.Y.: PublicAffairs, 2004).
80.
Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 216.
81.
Geraldo Zahran and Leonardo Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power: Implications of a Conceptual Change,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), p. 16.
82.
Joseph S. Nye, Jr., The Future of Power (New York, N.Y.: PublicAffairs, 2011).
83.
Janice Bially Mattern, “Why ‘Soft Power’ Isn’t So Soft: Representational Force and the Sociolinguistic Construction of Attraction in World Politics,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol. 33, No. 3 (2005), pp. 583–612.
84.
Geun Lee, “A Theory of Soft Power and Korea’s Soft Power Strategy,” The Korean Journal of Defense Analysis, Vol. 21, No. 2 (June 2009), pp. 205–218.
85.
Todd Hall, “An Unclear Attraction: A Critical Examination of Soft Power as an Analytical Category,” The Chinese Journal of International Politics, Vol. 3, No. 2 (2010), pp. 189–211.
86.
Geraldo Zahran and Leonardo Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power: Implications of a Conceptual Change,” in Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives, eds. Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010), pp. 12–31.
87.
Su Changhe, “Soft Power,” in The Oxford Handbook of Modern Diplomacy, eds. Andrew F. Cooper, Jorge Heine, and Ramesh Thakur (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 544–558.
88.
Jean-Marc F. Blanchard and Fujia Lu, “Thinking Hard about Soft Power: A Review and Critique of the Literature on China and Soft Power,” Asian Perspective, Vol. 36, No. 4 (2012), pp. 565–589.
89.
Benjamin E. Goldsmith and Yusaku Horiuchi, “In Search of Soft Power: Does Foreign Public Opinion Matter for US Foreign Policy?,” World Politics, Vol. 64, No. 3 (July 2012), pp. 555–585.
90.
Laura Roselle, Alister Miskimmon, and Ben O’Loughlin, “Strategic Narrative: A New Means to Understand Soft Power,” Media, War & Conflict, Vol. 7, No. 1 (2014), pp. 70–84.
91.
Ty Solomon, “The Affective Underpinnings of Soft Power,” European Journal of International Relations, Vol. 20, No. 3 (2014), pp. 720–741.
92.
Artem Patalakh, “Assessment of Soft Power Strategies: Towards an Aggregative Analytical Model for Country-Focused Case Study Research,” Croatian International Relations Review, Vol. 22, No. 76 (2016), pp. 85–112.
93.
Peter Baumann and Gisela Cramer, “Power, Soft or Deep? An Attempt at Constructive Criticism,” Las Torres de Lucca: International Journal of Political Philosophy, No. 10 (January-June 2017), pp. 177–214.
94.
See for example Watanabe Yasushi and David L. McConnell, eds., Soft Power Superpowers: Cultural and National Assets of Japan and the United States (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 2008); Inderjeet Parmar and Michael Cox, eds. Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (Abingdon: Routledge, 2010); and Naren Chitty, Li Ji, Gary D. Rawnsley, and Craig Hayden, eds., The Routledge Handbook of Soft Power (Abingdon: Routledge, 2017).
95.
James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, eds., Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). The volume’s first chapter contributed by the editors is particularly vital; James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer, “Comparative Historical Analysis: Achievements and Agendas,” in Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences, eds. James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 3–38.
96.
James Mahoney and Kathleen Thelen, eds., Advances in Comparative-Historical Analysis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015). Once more, see especially the volume’s first chapter contributed by the editors; Kathleen Thelen and James Mahoney, “Comparative-Historical Analysis in Contemporary Political Science,” in Advances in Comparative-Historical Analysis, eds. James Mahoney and Kathleen Thelen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2015), pp. 3–36.
97.
Matthew Lange, Comparative-Historical Methods (Los Angeles, Cal.: SAGE Publications, 2013).
98.
Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts,” p. 226.
99.
Giulio M. Gallarotti, “Smart Power: Definitions, Importance, and Effectiveness,” Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 38, No. 3 (2015), pp. 245–246.
100.
See below, Sect. 2.5.4.
101.
Zahran and Ramos, “From Hegemony to Soft Power,” p. 16.
102.
Gilboa, “Searching for a Theory of Public Diplomacy,” p. 62.
103.
Layne, “The Unbearable Lightness of Soft Power,” p. 52.
104.
Auer, Srugies, and Löffelholz, “Schlüsselbegriffe der internationalen Diskussion,” p. 41.
105.
Blanchard and Lu, “Thinking Hard about Soft Power,” p. 570. For further points of criticism directed at the concept see especially, Sect. 2.5.4.
106.
Craig Hayden, “Scope, Mechanism, and Outcome: Arguing Soft Power in the Context of Public Diplomacy,” Journal of International Relations and Development, Vol. 20, No. 2 (2017), p. 349.
107.
See below, Chap. 3.
108.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Faust: A Dramatic Poem, Translated into English Verse by Theodore Martin (Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Sons, 1871), p. 92. (Act II, Scene I – Faust’s Study).
109.
Hall, “An Unclear Attraction,” p. 195.
110.
Nye, “Responding to My Critics and Concluding Thoughts” p. 226.

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Center for Global Studies, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Hendrik W. Ohnesorge

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Ohnesorge, H.W. (2020). Introduction: In the Midst of Global Power Shifts. In: Soft Power. Global Power Shift. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29922-4_1

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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29922-4_1
Published: 23 November 2019
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