Abstract
Storytelling evolves, as do genres. Evolutions prompted by creative innovations, hybridization, or encountering emerging technology, any of these might lead to a genre fail. Genre failures mark a juncture in an evolutionary branch, leading to a dead-end, a limp wilting limb, or a vigorous new branch. Even in this latter instance, prior to its institutionalization, a genre innovation might at first come off as stupid. As examples, the authors evaluate innovative approaches to the horror genre, Roman Pornos (Japanese softcore erotic films), and the televisual following the advent of streaming services. From the emergence of long-format television, to the possibilities of interactive narratives, streaming has a measurable impact on (televisual-)genres, and forms. Interactive narratives begin to blur the boundaries between televisual/cinematic narratives and videogames.
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- 1.
John Truby, “The story that changed an industry,” November 10, 2018. Email sent to Julian Hoxter.
- 2.
Ibid.
- 3.
See, for example, Joseph Campbell, The Hero with a Thousand Faces (The Collected Works of Joseph Campbell), Third Edition (Novato, CA: New World Library, 2008); and Christopher Vogler, The Writer’s Journey: Mythic Structure for Writers, Third Edition (Studio City, CA: Michael Wiese Productions, 2007).
- 4.
Truby.
- 5.
Rick Altman, “A Semantic/Syntactic Approach to Film Genre,” Cinema Journal vol. 23, no. 3 (Spring 1984): 8.
- 6.
Note that Altman actually is critical of placing Stars Wars within the western genre: “By maintaining simultaneous descriptions according to both parameters [i.e., semantic/syntactic approach], we are not likely to fall into the trap of equating Star Wars with the western (as numerous recent critics have done), even though it shares certain syntactic patterns with that genre” Rick Altman, “A Semantic/Syntactic Approach to Film Genre,” Cinema Journal vol. 23, no. 3 (Spring 1984): 13.
- 7.
Steve Neale, Genre and Hollywood (New York: Routledge, 2000), 206.
- 8.
Oxford English Dictionary, sv “genre.”
- 9.
Oxford English Dictionary, sv “gender.”
- 10.
See Looper Staff, “The Real Reason Why Firefly Got Canceled,” looper.com , no date, accessed January 9, 2019, https://www.looper.com/10800/real-reason-firefly-got-canceled/.
- 11.
Rex Reed, “mother! Is the Worst Movie of the Year, Maybe the Century,” Observer, September 15, 2017, accessed November 10, 2018, https://observer.com/2017/09/darren-aronofsky-mother-worst-movie-of-the-year/.
- 12.
Seth Kelly, “Box Office Mother! Crumbles with $7.5 Million, It Repeats No. 1,” Variety, September 17, 2017, accessed November 10, 2018, https://variety.com/2017/film/news/box-office-mother-it-american-assassin-1202561464/.
- 13.
Owen Gleiberman, “Film Review: mother!” Variety, September 5, 2017, accessed November 10, 2018, https://variety.com/2017/film/reviews/mother-review-jennifer-lawrence-venice-film-festival-1202545924/.
- 14.
Ibid.
- 15.
Ibid.
- 16.
Anthony D’Alessandro, “The Method To The Madness Of Mother!’s Box Office Marketing,” Deadline Hollywood, September 14, 2017, accessed November 10, 2018, https://deadline.com/2017/09/mother-marketing-jennifer-lawrence-tiff-video-darren-aronofsky-1202168737/.
- 17.
On a related note, Judd Apatow might be an interesting study, because as Adam Kotsko explains, “a certain slippage has occurred so that the name ‘Apatow’ has come to designate not so much a man as a genre, such that movies that he is not directly involved in can somehow feel like an ‘Apatow film.’” Adam Kotsko, Awkwardness (Washington: Zero Books, 2010), 48.
- 18.
Michael Sragow, “Deep Focus: mother!” Film Comment (September 14, 2017): https://www.filmcomment.com/blog/deep-focus-mother/.
- 19.
Hélène Cattet and Bruno Forzani interviewed by Virginie Sélavy, “Interview with Hélène Cattet and Bruno Forzani,” Electric Sheep: a deviant view of cinema, April 10, 2014, accessed November 10, 2018, http://www.electricsheepmagazine.co.uk/features/2014/04/10/interview-with-helene-cattet-and-bruno-forzani/.
- 20.
Jeremi Szaniawski, “The Strange Shape of Their Cinema’s Body,” Senses of Cinema 87 (2018): http://sensesofcinema.com/2018/split-screen-cattet-forzani/cinema-body-helene-cattet-bruno-forzani/.
- 21.
Hélène Cattet and Bruno Forzani interviewed by Anton Bitel, “Fragments of Hélène Cattet and Bruno Forzani,” Senses of Cinema 87 (2018): http://sensesofcinema.com/2018/split-screen-cattet-forzani/helene-cattet-and-bruno-forzani-interview/. In an interview with the producer of Amer, Ève Commenge, she reflects on the post-production process, and the audio-design of the film: “A genre film, or at least Hélène and Bruno’s films, is produced with a longer post-production than usual. There is a whole second shoot in terms of sound, and the sound editing is quite huge. They told me, ‘ten weeks is okay’, they asked for so many days of foley, and so forth. I built that into the budget, based on what we had discussed. Sometimes it goes over budget by one, two days, but hardly more than that. On Amer we realised that the sound edit required more time, so it was difficult for (sound editor) Daniel Bruylandt. And we had started the sound edit, then did foley in the middle, then did another sound edit. That didn’t work, we didn’t have enough direct sound to work with before foley was added. So now we do foley/sound design first. Right after the image cut. We gather a lot of material, and then Daniel does the sound edit.” Éve Commenge interview and translation by Jeremi Szaniawski, Senses of Cinema 87 (2018): http://sensesofcinema.com/2018/split-screen-cattet-forzani/interview-with-eve-commenge/.
- 22.
Cattet and Forzani interviewed by Bitel.
- 23.
Cattet and Forzani interviewed by Sélavy.
- 24.
Carolee Schneemann interviewed by Kate Haug, “An Interview with Carolee Schneemann,” Wide Angle vol. 20, no. 1 (1998): 25.
- 25.
Cattet and Forzani interviewed by Sélavy.
- 26.
Ibid.
- 27.
Kat Ellinger, “Vice and Vision: Magnifying Sergio Martino for The Strange Colour of Your Body’s Tears,” Senses of Cinema 87 (2018): http://sensesofcinema.com/2018/split-screen-cattet-forzani/the-strange-colour-of-your-bodys-tears/.
- 28.
Cattet Forzani interviewed by Sélavy.
- 29.
Ibid.
- 30.
Martine Beugnet, Cinema of Sensation: French Film and the Art of Transgression (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007), 32.
- 31.
Alexandra Heller-Nicholas, “Facial Landscapes: Elina Löwensohn and Let the Corpses Tan (2017),” Senses of Cinema 87 (2018): http://sensesofcinema.com/2018/split-screen-cattet-forzani/let-the-corpses-tan-2017/.
- 32.
Hélène Cattet and Bruno Forzani cited in Christopher Huber, “A Language of Their Own: An Introduction to Hélène Cattet and Bruno Forzani,” Senses of Cinema 87 (2018): http://sensesofcinema.com/2018/split-screen-cattet-forzani/introduction-to-helene-cattet-and-bruno-forzani/.
- 33.
Pink films, perhaps in retrospect, is attributed to films known as, among other things, “erodakushon eiga or eroduction (a contraction of the words ‘erotic’ and ‘production’), oiroke eiga (‘sexy films’) and sanbyakuman eiga (‘three million-yen films’) due to their shoestring budgets.” Loosely speaking, even euroguro (erotic-grotesque) films—which shares affinities with the American grindhouse, or exploitation film—might be characterized as pink films. Jasper Sharp, Behind the Pink Curtain: The Complete History of Japanese Sex Cinema (Surrey, UK: FAB Press Ltd., 2008), 11–12.
- 34.
Ibid., 123.
- 35.
Jasper Sharp adds that Nikkatsu attempt to enter the video market too “with the Roman X video series,” but this was not enough to postpone the inevitable demise of the studio declaring bankruptcy in 1993. The company has since been resurrected, with its extensive back catalog, but as a shadow of its former self. Sharp, 129–130.
- 36.
Zahlten Alexander, The End of Japanese Cinema: Industrial Genres, National Times, and Media Ecologies (Durham: Duke University Press, 2017), 86.
- 37.
Ibid., 88. Also see Sharp, 129. Sharp also notes that “by all accounts its seems that Nikkatsu were quite keen to attract couples and female viewers to its cinemas, something never possible with the rowdy men-only pink theaters.” Sharp, 129.
- 38.
Tom Mes and Jasper Sharp characterize Suzuki in a similar manner, “Wacky, irreverent, occasionally incoherent, but always dazzlingly original and imbued with a playful charm that has become the maverick director’s trademark, his work continues to thrill and amuse an entire new generation.” Tom Mes and Jasper Sharp, The Midnight Eye Guide to New Japanese Film (Berkeley: Stone Bridge Press, 2005), 12.
- 39.
From 1948 to 1955 Suzuki worked at Shochiku as an assistant director prior to working at Nikkatsu (1956–1968). While at Shochiku Suzuki recounts looking for the best place to take a nap while on the job.
- 40.
Filmmaker Shinji Aoyama takes a similar view: “What Suzuki represents to me is anarchy. He’s a complete anarchist, and he’s the only person in Japanese cinema who could get away with a film like Story of Sorrow and Sadness. I was born in 1964 and so I was in my early teens when I experienced punk, and on me Jean-Luc Godard and Seijun Suzuki had the same sort of impact.” Shinji Aoyama cited in Mes and Sharp, 3.
- 41.
Tony Rayns, “The Kyoka Factor: The Delights of Suzuki Seijun,” in Branded to Thrill: The Delirious Cinema of Suzuki Seijun, eds. Simon Field and Tony Rayns (London: Institute of Contemporary Art; Japan Foundation, 1994), 9.
- 42.
Temenuga Trifonova views the “sequel” to Branded to Kill (and sequel needs to be viewed in the loosest, or most liberal terms), Suzuki’s Pistol Opera (2001) as a meta-yakuza film, a film about the representation of violence in yakuza films. See Temenuga Trifonova, “From Genre Flick to Art Film: Seijun Suzuki’s Branded to Kill (1967) and Pistol Opera (2001),” in Genre in Asian Film and Television, eds., Chan F., Karpovich A., Zhang X. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 149–162. Note: due to a lack of accessibility to the published volume, we worked from a Word document of Trifonova’s chapter. We would like to thank Trifonova for generously sharing her work with us.
- 43.
As a cog in the studio machine, Suzuki was assigned scripts, assigned actors, and regularly commissioned to make conventional genre films (gangster, detective films, romantic melodramas, war films). Suzuki was expected to churn out B-movies, intended for double-bills, and he built a reputation as a capable filmmaker completing his assignments “on low budgets (typically between one-third and two-thirds the cost of ‘A’ films) and within tight schedules (e.g., producing two to six films per year for more than a decade).” Daisuke Miyao, “Dark Visions of Japanese Film Noir: Suzuki Seijun’s Branded to Kill (1967),” in Alastair Phillips and Julian Stringer eds., Japanese Cinema: Texts and Context (New York: Routledge, 2007), 195.
- 44.
Kyusaku Hori quoted in Miyao, 194.
- 45.
Miyao , 202.
- 46.
Criterion released seven Suzuki titles: Branded to Kill (1967), Tokyo Drifter (1966), Fighting Elegy (1966), Gate of Flesh (1964), Story of a Prostitute (1965), Youth of the Beast (1963), and Take Aim at the Police Van (1960).
- 47.
For example, the New York Times obituary for Suzuki notes the connection between Tarantino and Suzuki. Dennis Lim, “Seijun Suzuki, Director Who Inspired Tarantino and Jarmusch, Dies at 93,” New York Times, February 22, 2017, accessed November 10, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/22/movies/seijun-suzuki-director-who-inspired-tarantino-and-jarmusch-dies-at-93.html.
- 48.
“Hong Kong director Wong Kar Wai … used the theme music for In the Mood for Love (2000),” drawing from Suzuki’s Yumeji (1991). Mes and Sharp, 11.
- 49.
Ken Basin, “How Broadcast, Cable and Indies Can Survive the Peak TV Era,” Variety, July 31, 2018, accessed April 20, 2019, https://variety.com/2018/tv/news/peak-tv-broadcast-cable-indies-streaming-1202890389/.
- 50.
Historically, most network TV shows run at a loss in the short term and make significant profit only after they transition to syndication.
- 51.
Netflix curates its content based on who it thinks you are. In a Marketplace report, Nitasha Tiku notes that depending on your (presumed) race Netflix will even select images that presumably corresponds with your demographic. Listen to the report: Kai Ryssdal and Phoebe Unterman, “Is Netflix Personalization Making You Feel ∗Seen∗ … Or Profiled?” NPR’s Marketplace, October 26, 2018, November 10, 2018, https://www.marketplace.org/2018/10/26/world/netflix-personalization-making-you-feel-seen-or-profiled.
- 52.
The disruptive nature of streaming and SVOD services to the established media industry is explored astutely from a business perspective in Arne Alsin, “The Future Of Media: Disruptions, Revolutions And The Quest For Distribution,” Forbes, July 18, 2018, accessed November 10, 2018, https://www.forbes.com/sites/aalsin/2018/07/19/the-future-of-media-disruptions-revolutions-and-the-quest-for-distribution/#4194bae060b9.
- 53.
For online fan discussion see, for example, the subreddit: “Has the show become more fan service/fiction and less realistic over the last 2 seasons.” https://www.reddit.com/r/asoiaf/comments/6zah9n/spoilers_main_has_the_show_become_more_fan/.
- 54.
Peter Bradshaw, “Nicolas Winding Refn: ‘Cinema is Dead. And now it is resurrected,’” The Guardian, July 9, 2018, accessed April 12, 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/film/2018/jul/09/nicolas-winding-refn-cinema-is-dead-bynwrcom.
- 55.
Daniel Bernardi and Julian Hoxter, “Running the Room: Showrunning in Expanded Television,” in Off The Page: Screenwriting in the Era of Media Convergence (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2017), 111–113.
- 56.
Nellie Andreeva, “TV Producers on Changing Storytelling Techniques For The Binging Era & Unusual Places Series Can Come From—INTV,” deadline.com , March 12, 2019, accessed March 12, 2019, https://deadline.com/2019/03/tv-producers-changing-storytelling-techniques-binging-era-unusual-places-series-can-come-from-intv-hannibal-hemlock-grove-good-witch-1202574197/maz/.
- 57.
Ibid.
- 58.
Jason Mittell, Complex TV: The Poetics of Contemporary Television Storytelling (New York: New York University Press, 2015), 180.
- 59.
Ibid., 181.
- 60.
Ben Stiller interviewed by Terry Gross, “Ben Stiller Unlocks An ‘Old-Fashioned’ Prison Break In Escape At Dannemora,” Fresh Air, NPR, January 8, 2019, accessed January 8, 2019, https://www.npr.org/templates/transcript/transcript.php?storyId=683192524.
- 61.
Nolan’s claim is cited in a Tweet from Paley Center, “@WestworldHBO #PaleyFest,” March 25, 2017, 8:33 PM. https://twitter.com/paleycenter/status/845841101193830400, Benioff and Weiss are cited in a range of media including Julia Alexander, “Game of Thrones showrunners ignite debate over whether it’s a TV show or a movie,” polygon.com , April 13, 2017, accessed April 9, 2019, https://www.polygon.com/tv/2017/3/13/14911318/game-of-thrones-tv-movie.
- 62.
Michael Z. Newman and Elana Levine, Legitimating Television: Media Convergence and Cultural Status (New York: Routledge, 2012).
- 63.
Alan Sepinwall, “Your TV Show Doesn’t Have To Be A Movie: In Defense Of The Episode (Again),” uproxx.com , March 14, 2017, accessed April 9, 2019, https://uproxx.com/sepinwall/in-defense-of-the-episode-again/. Italics in original.
- 64.
Kathryn Van Arendonk, “Why Are We So Sure ‘Prestige’ TV Looks Like a 10-Hour Movie,” vulture.com , March 28, 2017, accessed April 1, 2019, https://www.vulture.com/2017/03/prestige-tv-why-are-we-sure-it-looks-like-a-10-hour-movie.html.
- 65.
Todd Van Der Werff, critic at large for Vox, offers his structural breakdown of both shows in a tweet @tvoti, March 23, 2017, 10.37 AM, https://twitter.com/tvoti/status/844966371670736896.
- 66.
Van Arendonk.
- 67.
See note 37 on page 34.
- 68.
The second entry for the prefix “meta,” is: “With sense ‘beyond, above, at a higher level.’” Oxford English Dictionary, sv “meta.”
- 69.
Peter Rubin, “With Interactive TV, Every Viewer Is a Showrunner Now,” Wired, January 21, 2019, accessed April 1, 2019, https://www.wired.com/story/netflix-interactive-tv-every-viewer-is-a-showrunner/.
- 70.
Ibid.
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Kerner, A., Hoxter, J. (2019). The Stupid in Genre Fails. In: Theorizing Stupid Media. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28176-2_3
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