Abstract
This introductory chapter recaps the most pertinent scholarly debates, before paving the way for a renewed history of the French emigration provoked by the Revolution of 1789 in Europe and beyond. Long gone are the assumptions that this under-explored phenomenon happened within the narrow confines of counter-revolutionary political agendas: this chapter highlights instead the need to better investigate the parameters of exile and host societies’ connections and reciprocal exchanges, invites to embrace multidisciplinarity, and encourages for the (re)discovery of archival sources. In remapping the geographies of exile and decompartmentalising the French emigration—making it part of a more global history and history of exile—this introduction provides a solid foundation for new connected histories and memories of exile to flourish.
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Notes
- 1.
Letter of the Chevalier de Panat to Mallet Du Pan, January 1796, reproduced in A. Sayous, Mémoires et correspondance de Mallet du Pan, II, 195–197, at p. 197. On the question on the aftermath of 1815 and the counter-revolution, see Caron and Luis, Rien appris, rien oublié.
- 2.
The question of the incidence of the French emigration has not been resolved since Greer attempted in the 1950s to calculate how many individuals had been recorded on the French émigré lists. A recent attempt at counting émigrés can be seen in Dunne ‘Quantifier l’émigration des nobles’. It is furthermore difficult, if not impossible, to define the incidence of emigration per host country due to the absence of exhaustive contemporary administrative sources from non-French governments.
- 3.
The often quoted Vidalenc and Diesbach failed to go beyond the anecdotal.
- 4.
Baldensperger, Mouvement des idées dans l’émigration française. A second attempt in comparative history and the impact of the emigration in various European countries was initiated by Carpenter and Mansel, French Emigrés in Europe. See also the work by Baldensperger’s student and emulator in the discipline of comparative history: Maspéro-Clerc, Un Journaliste contre-révolutionnaire.
- 5.
We do not imply that there was no scholarship related to the emigration. There were multiple biographical studies on aristocratic émigrés, the emigration from various French regions, or the economic impact on the French society and State of the emigration in the late 1790s up to the mid-nineteenth century. On the latter, see Bouloiseau, Etude de l’émigration; Bodinier and Teyssier, L’Evènement le plus important de la Révolution, and, more recently, Franck and Michalopoulos, ‘Emigration During the French Revolution’.
- 6.
For an excellent summary of the historiography on this topic before and after 1989, see Rance, ‘L’Historiographie de l’émigration’, in ed. Bourdin, Les Noblesses françaises dans l’Europe de la Révolution, pp. 355–368.
- 7.
Physical is understood here as sources that were non-existent, had been destroyed or physically absent but rediscovered by scholars.
- 8.
There have been several excellent biographies and studies of émigrés and counter-revolutionary thinkers. See, for instance, but not exclusively, Mansel, Louis XVIII; Armenteros, The French Idea of History.
- 9.
See, for instance, Walczak, Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun and ‘Die Französische Revolution und der Kunstmarkt Englands’.
- 10.
These epistemological advances happened notably in transnational studies, global history, and a refining of gender studies, for example.
- 11.
The conference, entitled ‘Connected Histories and Memories; French Emigrants in Revolutionised Europe’, was held at Radboud University Nijmegen in June 2017. The editors of this volume are forever thankful to Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen and the University of Western Sydney for their gracious financial help.
- 12.
Carpenter and Mansel, eds., French Emigrés in Europe. Collections including chapters on the emigration abound; see, for instance, Bourdin (ed.), Noblesses françaises and Höpel and Middell (eds), Réfugiés et Emigrés.
- 13.
We are particularly grateful to Matthijs Lok who presented a paper on François-Xavier de Feller’s anti-Enlightenment thoughts; Lien Verpoest for her communication on the émigrés in Russia; and Lisanne Jansen who presented a new perspective on Madame de Genlis’ writings. We would also like to thank Gabriella Angeloni who offered a useful comparison between the émigrés of the French Revolution and the English loyalists of the American one.
- 14.
According to Lacour-Gayet, Calonne or Christophe Henning in Visse, 1789. L’Année révolutionnaire.
- 15.
Biard and Dupuy, (eds), La Révolution française, dynamiques et ruptures, p. 219. See also McMahon, Enemies of the Enlightenment and Masseau, Les Ennemis des Lumières.
- 16.
Edmund Burke, Reflections. See Bourke, Empire and Revolution. On the idea of a transnational reinvention of an ‘Ancient Constitution’, see ‘Reinventing the Ancient Constitution’ in the soon to be published monograph by Matthijs Lok (manuscript in progress).
- 17.
For instance, on Germany and Austria see Burkhardt, Konstanz im 18. Jahrhundert; Winkler, Emigranten der Französischen Revolution.
On the British Isles see Carpenter, Refugees. Reboul, French Emigration.
On Italy see Amandine Fauchon, ‘Mutations de la sociabilité mondaine’ and her chapter in Bourdin, Noblesses françaises; Chopelin, ‘Des Loups déguisés en agneaux’.
On Spain and Portugal see Gutierrez, El Exilio; Luis, ‘Vivre et survivre en exil’ and ‘Une histoire de réfugiés politiques’; Castelo-Branco Chaves, A emigração francesa em Portugal durante a Revolução.
On North America see Furstenberg, When the United States Spoke French; Meadows, ‘Engineering Exile’, Villerbu, Les Francais et les Etats-Unis.
On Austria and Eastern Europe see Lien Verpoest, ‘Enlightened Path’; Godsey, ‘La Société était au fond légitimiste’.
- 18.
See Lynn Hunt ‘The French Revolution in Global Context’ and Maya Jasanoff ‘Revolutionary Exiles: The American Loyalists and French Émigré Diasporas’ in Armitage and Subrahmanyam, The Age of Revolutions.
- 19.
Philippe Minard, ‘Global, Connected, or Transnational: Shifting the scale of history’.
- 20.
One of the most recent articles on the subject is Ashburn Miller, ‘A Fiction of the French Nation’.
- 21.
Carpenter and Mansel, eds., French Emigrés in Europe.
- 22.
Espagne, Transferts culturels franco-allemands.
- 23.
Thomas Höpel, ‘Kulturtransfer im Vergleich’. Karine Rance, Mémoires de nobles émigrés. See also Middell, ‘Révolution française et l’Allemagne’. A similar observation is made in Burrows, ‘Cultural Politics of Exile’.
- 24.
On cultural transfers from the French to their hosts, see, for instance, Maike Manske, Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Kulturtransfers and Matthias Winkler and Friedemann Pestel, ‘Provisorische Integration und Kulturtransfer’.
- 25.
Werner and Zimmerman, ‘Beyond Comparison’.
- 26.
Modlinger and Sonntag, (eds), Other People’s Pain. See also Luckhurst, The Trauma Question and his article ‘Beyond Trauma’, p. 15.
- 27.
Astbury, Narrative; see also Philip’s chapter in this volume and her thesis ‘The Novels of French Noblewomen Emigrées in London in the 1790s’.
- 28.
Rance, ‘Identité narrative et ipséité’.
- 29.
Ian Watts’ idea that the sentimental novel is essentially British is long gone; scholars now consider the diversity of literary creations in Europe and the cultural exchanges between national canons. Watts, The Rise of the Novel. Michael McKeon’s critique of Watts is a good place to start: ‘Watt’s Rise of the Novel’.
- 30.
Jaquier, Lotterie, Seth, (eds), Destins romanesques de l’émigration.
- 31.
Rossi, Mémoires aristocratiques féminins. Claudine Giachetti, in her Poétique des lieux, also theorised literary critique for the female memoirs of this period, speaking of emotional spaces.
- 32.
See, for instance, Genand, Romans de l’émigration.
- 33.
Astbury, Narrative Responses. The period 1830–1850 has been seen as the moment when realism ‘displace[d] the sentimental novel’. The realist novel appropriated some of the sentimental novel’s characteristics according to Margaret Cohen, in ‘Women and fiction in the nineteenth century’, p. 55; 60.
- 34.
See Hunt, Family Romance of the French Revolution; Barker and Chalus, (eds), Gender in Eighteenth-Century England; Hesse, The Other Enlightenment.
- 35.
Jennings, Masculin/féminin; Carpenter, Novels of Madame de Souza; Eugénie et Mathilde.
- 36.
Male studies are still underrepresented in gender studies, especially in France, despite being the topic of recent doctoral theses. See Corbin and Perrot, ‘Des femmes, des hommes et des genres’ and Riot-Sarcey, Le Genre en questions.
- 37.
Heuer, Family and the Nation.
- 38.
On the question of the heterogeneous profile of émigrés, see Rance, ‘L’Historiographie’. Rubinstein’s 1933 thesis, Die franzosiche Emigration nach 1789, only recently published, was amongst the first to present a sociology of emigration, presenting a very heterogeneous group. Greer in his Incidence of the Emigration was amongst the first to demonstrate the socio-economic diversity of the group using only French sources; his national survey of emigration has been confirmed and specified many times since. Bellenger in his French Exiled Clergy in the British Isles, Carpenter in her Refugees of the French Revolution, Höpel in Emigranten der Französischen Revolution in Preussen, to cite only a few studies, found a similar socio-economic heterogeneity when studying émigré groups in their host communities. The scholarship on the political diversity of emigration was renewed with studies such as Simon Burrows, French Exile Journalism or more recently Pestel, Kosmopoliten wider Willen.
- 39.
Wahnich, Impossible citoyen.
- 40.
The term itself entered the dictionary of the Académie in 1798.
- 41.
See in this collection chapters by Ashburn Miller and Summers.
- 42.
Pestel (‘French Revolution and Migration’) associates the dichotomous periodisation of emigration to political self-fashioning during the Restoration period—Madame de Staël justified her emigration by its lateness. However, this dichotomy was perhaps already at play in the late 1790s.
- 43.
See Chapter 3 of Kelly Summers’ ‘The Great Return’, as well as her forthcoming book on the topic.
- 44.
On domestic servants in exile, see in this collection the chapter by Sydney Watts. See also Reboul, French Emigration to Great Britain.
- 45.
Martin, Contre Révolution, révolution et Nation.
- 46.
Reboul, French Emigration to Great Britain.
- 47.
Idem. See also Carpenter, Refugees and Bellenger.
- 48.
Carpenter, Refugees.
- 49.
For more on this semantic shift, see Kelly Summers above, as well as the foundational study that she cites, Boroumand, ‘Emigration and the Rights of Man’.
- 50.
Jasanoff, ‘Revolutionary Exiles: The American loyalist and the French Emigré diasporas’ in Armitage and Subrahmanyam, Age of Revolutions in Global Context; Sylvie Aprile, Le Siècle des exilés.
- 51.
See Pestel, ‘French Revolution and Migration’. In this, he argues that the French Emigration differs from predeceasing migratory phenomenon (the Huguenot Diaspora and the Jacobites’ flight) ‘on account of its political character and geographical scope’ as well as the temporal dimension.
- 52.
For Britain, see, for instance, Sparrow, ‘The Alien Office’.
- 53.
See Bhabha, Location of Culture.
- 54.
Epstein and Gang, ‘Introduction: Migration and Culture’ in Epstein and Gang (eds), Migration and Culture.
- 55.
Ashburn Miller, ‘A Fiction of the French Nation’.
- 56.
Pestel, ‘French Revolution and Migration after 1789’.
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Acknowledgement
We are grateful to Kate Astbury and Kelly Summers for their careful reviewing of this introduction.
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Philip, L., Reboul, J. (2019). Introduction. In: Philip, L., Reboul, J. (eds) French Emigrants in Revolutionised Europe. War, Culture and Society, 1750 –1850. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27435-1_1
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